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RECURRENT TRAINNING
MAX AIR LTD
JULY 2017
Aerodynamics
• BASIC AERODYNAMICS
Lift:
• The Leading Edge is the rounded part that first meets the
oncoming airflow and is where the air separates to flow over the
upper and lower surfaces.
• The Trailing Edge is usually a thin, sharp edge where the air flowing
over the upper surfaces rejoins the air flowing beneath the wing.
• The Chord or Chord Line is a straight line extending from the most
forward point on the leading edge to the most rearward point on
the trailing edge.
• Camber is the term that describes the curvature of the upper and
lower surfaces of a wing and, in general, the more pronounced the
camber, the more lift the wing will generate.
CREATION OF LIFT
The airplane’s wing shape is designed to take advantage of
both Newton’s Laws and Bernoulli’s Principle. The deflection
of the oncoming air stream upward and over the wing is
called upwash. Since the wing strikes the oncoming air at an
angle, the air flowing around the wing is also deflected
downward as it leaves the trailing edge. This is called
downwash.
Although the real details of how an object generates lift are very
complex, one of the key factors is the need to simultaneously
conserve mass, momentum, and energy in the flow of a gas.
The key to lift is the turning of the airflow resulting in a
change in momentum and energy of the mass of the air
because of the change in direction.
This causes a reaction in the opposite direction, and this reaction
is called lift
ANGLE OF ATTACK
• Relative wind is the term which defines the direction of the
oncoming airstream with respect to the aircraft over which
it flows. The relative wind is always parallel to and in the
direction opposite the flight path. The flight path is the
path the airplane is traveling through the air. This path does
not necessarily correspond to the direction the aircraft
nose is pointed.
• The angle formed by the relative wind and the chord line of
the wing is called the angle of attack (AOA). Up to a certain
point, as the angle of attack increases, lift also increases.
Lift acts perpendicular to the relative wind, regardless of
the angle of attack.
ANGLE OF ATTACK
• Here are several important facts about lift and angle of attack that you
need to know:
• Lift is proportional to the square of the airspeed - if the airspeed is
doubled, lift increases four times. The amount of lift created is dependent
on true airspeed, angle of attack, and air density. If airspeed decreases,
AOA must increase if lift is to remain constant.
• As density decreases, true airspeed must be increased to maintain the
same amount of lift at a given angle of attack.
• Changing the angle of attack allows the pilot to control lift, airspeed,
and drag.
• When a wing is flying close to the ground, as in takeoff and landing, it is
said to be operating in ground effect.
• When operating in ground effect, a wing can generate the same amount of
lift at a lower angle of attack because energy losses are reduced
ANGLE OF ATTACK
In ground effect, circulation around the wing
changes, trapping a cushion of air between
the wing and the ground. Drag decreases and
the ratio of lift over drag (L/D) increases
(equaling greater efficiency) resulting in a
reduction in AOA for an equal amount of lift.
WEIGHT
The speed at which the induced and parasite drag curves cross
is known as the point of maximum lift over drag, also called
maximum L/D or best L/D.
FLIGHT AT BEST (MAXIMUM) L/D
• For gliders and reciprocating-engine propeller-
driven aircraft, at best L/D speed, the least
power is required to maintain level flight and
maximum range is achieved. This is also the
best gliding speed.
• The blue radial line on the airspeed indicator indicates the maximum
single-engine rate of climb airspeed. The ball in the skid-slip indicator may,
and should, be outside the reference lines whenever operating at speeds
greater than Vmc, the minimum controllable engine-inoperative speed to
reduce drag and ensure best climb performance.
• Flight tests have shown that holding the ball in the center while
maintaining heading with wings level increases Vmc by as much as 20
knots due to increased drag.
VORTEX GENERATORS
When the aircraft flies, it appears to rotate about the CG. The CG is
also the point where the weight appears to be concentrated and
where the airplane balances.
PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS
AILERONS
• Ailerons rotate the airplane around the roll axis. This banks the wings,
dividing the lift into a vertical and horizontal component. Banking the
wings turns the airplane.
• The lowered aileron increases camber, lift, and drag; the raised aileron
decreases camber, lift and drag. The differences in drag cause the nose
of the airplane to yaw toward the outside of the turn. This yawing
effect is called aileron drag or adverse yaw.
• Some jet transports have both inboard and outboard ailerons. In this
case, both sets of ailerons are primary flight controls. The inboard
ailerons are usually located approximately behind the inboard or wing-
mounted engines and the outboard ailerons near the wingtip. The
inboard ailerons are used during both high-speed and low-speed flight.
• The outboard ailerons are used only during low-speed flight. They are
locked out during high-speed flight because the aerodynamic
loads created when they deflect cause undesirable twisting of the
wingtips.
FLIGHT AND GROUND SPOILERS
• Most jet transports have flight spoilers on each wing which deflect
along with the ailerons to assist in controlling the aircraft. As
before, when the left aileron moves up, the right aileron moves
down and the airplane rolls left wing down. At the same time, the
left flight spoilers deflect up to assist the ailerons while the right
spoilers remain down.
• The flight spoilers may also be used as speed brakes in flight. In this
way, the flight spoilers reduce lift and increase drag without
increasing airspeed, thus helping the aircraft to descend more
rapidly at a constant airspeed.
• On the 737, each wing also has two ground spoilers. These surfaces
deflect upward in addition to the flight spoilers when the main
wheels touch down on landing. The combination of flight and
ground spoilers reduces lift upon landing. Spoiling the wing lift
helps prevent the airplane from bouncing back into the air and
improves the effectiveness of the wheel brakes.
ELEVATORS
• The elevators control rotation around the pitch axis. Moving the
elevator up raises the nose of the aircraft, while moving it down
lowers the nose. The primary purpose of the elevators is to control
the angle of attack, thereby controlling the airspeed. Raising the
nose at any given airspeed increases the angle of attack, thus
increasing both lift and drag. The aircraft will gain altitude
momentarily, but the increase in drag will immediately begin to
reduce the airspeed. Without a change in power, the airplane
eventually stabilizes at an airspeed lower than the initial speed. The
initial power setting may be insufficient to maintain level flight.
• Pilots are taught that pitch plus power equals performance. This
statement means that airspeed is controlled by the pitch
attitude while power controls whether the airplane climbs, flies
level, or descends.
RUDDER
• The rudder rotates the airplane around the yaw axis. It is important
to recognize that the rudder does not turn the airplane and is not
used for that purpose. The primary purpose of the rudder is to
counteract the effects of aileron drag (also known as adverse yaw).
As previously mentioned, when the ailerons are deflected to bank
the wings, the lowered aileron creates more drag than the raised
aileron. This tends to yaw the nose to the outside of the turn. The
rudder is applied in the direction of the turn to prevent the airplane
from yawing and to keep the fuselage streamlined with the relative
wind.
• Proper coordination of the ailerons and rudder when turning the
airplane prevents skidding out or slipping into the turn, thereby
improving the quality of the turn and reducing total drag.
TRIM TABS
• Elevator trim tabs modify the downward tail load
at various airspeeds to eliminate flight control
pressures. This reduces pilot workload because
the pilot doesn’t have to constantly apply
pressure to hold a pitch attitude.
• Rudder trim tabs modify the tail side load to
eliminate flight control pressures particularly
during engine-out operations.
• Once set, the trim tabs remain fixed for all
elevator or rudder positions.
STABILIZER TRIM
• Most jet transports have moveable horizontal
stabilizers. Trimming the stabilizer works like an
elevator trim tab but is more aerodynamically
efficient.
• Some aircraft have alignment stripes for ground
inspection. This allows the flight crew or
maintenance personnel to determine that the
stabilizer position matches the flight deck
position indication when the stabilizer position is
set to a predetermined value.
CONTROL, SERVO, AND ANTI-SERVO TABS
• Control tabs may be used on some airplanes to move the primary flight
controls in the event that hydraulic power is lost. This is called manual
reversion. These control tabs are located at the trailing edge of the
primary flight controls and are operated manually by cables from the flight
deck controls. They move in a direction opposite that of the flight control
surface and are capable of positioning the primary surface by
aerodynamic forces.
• Like control tabs, servo tabs are located at the trailing edge of the primary
flight controls and are usually operated manually by cables from the flight
deck controls. Servo tabs move in a direction opposite that of the flight
control surface. They are designed to use aerodynamic forces to position
the primary control surface, thereby reducing the control forces in
airplanes without hydraulically powered controls.
• Anti-servo tabs are used to prevent a control surface from moving to a full-
deflection position due to aerodynamic forces. Anti-servo tabs move in
the same direction as the primary control surface to which they are
attached.
CONTROL, SERVO, AND ANTI-SERVO TABS
HIGH LIFT DEVICES
• This section on high lift devices introduces several
types of leading edge devices and trailing edge flaps
and also explains their purpose and operation. High
lift devices may be attached to either the leading or
trailing edge of a wing. The primary purpose of all high
lift devices is to increase lift at low speeds. High lift
devices work by increasing the camber of the wing.
• Of the four types of flaps illustrated here, the Fowler
flap is the most common. Plain and Split flaps are very
old technology and not found on any modern large
airplanes. Jet transports use a combination of the
slotted and Fowler technologies.
HIGH LIFT DEVICES
LEADING EDGE DEVICES
• Like trailing edge flaps, leading edge devices are primarily designed to
increase lift at low speeds by increasing the camber of the wing. They are
considered to be auxiliary flight controls.
• There are three principle types of leading edge devices: flaps, slats, and
slots. Leading edge flaps generally hinge forward and down from a point a
short distance behind the leading edge. In addition to increasing lift at low
speeds, they prevent flow separation during the landing flare prior to
touchdown.
• Leading edge slats are a moveable portion of the entire leading edge that
also move forward and down when extended. This not only increases wing
camber to increase lift, but creates a slot to direct high pressure air from
the lower surface over the upper surface to prevent flow separation at low
speeds.
• Leading edge slots are fixed openings a short distance behind the leading
edge. They are generally positioned forward of the ailerons and they affect
performance by increasing the stalling angle of attack and by ducting
high energy air into the upper surface boundary layer to delay flow
separation.
LEADING EDGE DEVICES
• Shock induced airflow separation near the wing roots causes a severe
pitch down moment called Mach tuck or tuck under.
• A major disadvantage is that the wingtips tend to stall before the wing
roots.
• When the wingtips experience a shock-induced stall, the center of
pressure (center of lift) moves inward and forward. This makes the aircraft
less stable in pitch.
• Gusts can cause the aircraft to simultaneously roll in one direction and
yaw in the opposite direction. This is known as Dutch roll.
END OF SLIDE
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