Fundamentals of Duct Design

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Secret
Internal use only
Public
Fundamentals of Duct design

Webinar, 06 February 2017
1. Introduction.
2. Air flow principles.
3. Duct classification.
4. Duct shapes.
5. Duct sizing.
6. Duct insulation.
7. Conclusions.
1. Introduction
3 Fundamentals of Duct design - Internal use only

Introduction
Design criteria:
- Space availability
- Space air diffusion
- Noise level
- Duct leakage
- Duct heat gains & losses
- Balancing
- Fire & smoke control
- Investment costs
- Operating costs of the system
- …

2. Air Flow Principles

Air flow principles
Air flow is the result of a pressure differential between two points.
𝑝1 𝑝2
𝑝1 > 𝑝2

Air flow principles
Fundamental laws of physics:
1. Conservation of mass:
- Air mass is neither created nor destroyed.
- A duct size can be recalculated for a new air velocity by using the
formula:
𝒗𝟏 ∗ 𝑨𝟏 = 𝒗𝟐 ∗ 𝑨𝟐
𝑣1 𝑣2
Where:
v = velocity [m/s]
A = surface [m²]
𝐴1 𝐴2
Air flow principles
Fundamental laws of physics:
2. Conservation of energy:
- Based on the Bernouilli equation: the difference in total pressure
between two points, is equal to the pressure loss between these
two points.
∆𝒑𝟏>𝟐 = 𝒑𝒕𝟏 − 𝒑𝒕𝟐
3. Conservation of momentum.
- Based on Newton’s law that a body will maintain its state of rest
or uniform motion unless compelled by another force to change
that state.

Static, velocity & total pressure
Static pressure: Velocity (or dynamic) pressure:

- Is the result of compressing air within a duct. - Is the energy component due to the fluid
- Static pressure reaches a peak at the fan unit velocity
and decreases throughout the duct due to - Is used for air flow determination
frictional pressure losses and declines to
almost zero at the exit of the duct.
- Static pressure is “positive” during “suction”
and “negative” during “discharge”
- Is used for fan selection
𝝆 ∗ 𝒗𝟐
𝒑𝒔 = 𝝆 ∗ 𝒈 ∗ 𝒉 𝒑𝒗 =
𝟐
Total pressure (𝑝𝑡 ) 𝒑𝒕 = 𝒑𝒔 + 𝒑𝒗

Air flow characteristics in a duct.
- The static pressure is equal in all directions

- The velocity pressure is only in the direction of the air flow.
- Since static pressure is also pushing in the direction of the airflow, it is difficult to measure the
velocity pressure in a duct.
- Velocity pressure is calculated by measuring the static pressure (perpendicular to the air flow)
and the total pressure (parallel to the air flow).

Pressure losses
The system resistance in duct work can be divided into:
1. Friction losses
Resistance to air flow caused by the duct size (length and diameter),
roughness of the duct walls and the air velocity.
2. Local or dynamic losses

Resistance to air flow caused by changes in air velocity and air
direction.
3. Equipment pressure losses

Resistance to air flow caused by components such as diffusers, coils,
filters, …

Pressure losses
1. Pressure losses by friction (Darcy-Weisbach)
𝒍 𝝆 ∗ 𝒗𝟐
𝒑𝒇 = 𝒇 ∗ ∗
𝒅𝒉 𝟐
Where:
𝑝𝑓 friction losses [Pa]
𝑓 friction factor [dimensionless]
𝑙 length [m]
𝑑ℎ hydraulic diameter [m]
𝜌 specific density [kg/m³]
𝑣 velocity [m/s²]

Pressure losses
𝒅𝒉 ∗ 𝑽
- Reynolds number: 𝑹𝒆 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝒗
With:
𝑅𝑒 Reynolds number
𝑑ℎ Hydraulic diameter [m]
𝑉 Velocity [m/s]
𝑣 Kinematic viscosity [m²/s]
𝑣 = 14,5 * 10−6 𝑚²Τ𝑠
𝑅𝑒 < 2.300 Laminar flow

𝑅𝑒 > 10.000 Turbulent flow
In between: transitional flow.
For standard air:

𝑅𝑒 = 66,4 ∗ 𝑑ℎ ∗ 𝑉
Pressure losses
Friction factor
Colebrook’s equation
𝟏 𝜺 𝟐, 𝟓 𝒍
= −𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 +
𝒇 𝟑, 𝟕 𝒅 𝒉 𝑹𝒆 𝒇
Where:
𝜀 = Material absolute roughness factor [mm]
𝑅�𝑒 = Reynolds number
Altshul developed a simplified formula which was modified by Tsal

𝟎,𝟐𝟓
𝜺 𝟔𝟖 If 𝑓 ′ ≥ 0,018 → 𝑓 = 𝑓 ′
𝒇′ = 𝟎, 𝟏𝟏 ∗ + If 𝑓 ′ < 0,018 → 𝑓 = 0,85 ∗ 𝑓 ′ + 0,0028
𝒅𝒉 𝑹𝒆
Pressure losses
Roughness factor (𝜀 ):

Friction chart
𝑘𝑔
16 Fundamentals of Duct design - Internal use only 𝜌 = 1,2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀 = 0,09 𝑚𝑚
𝑚3
Pressure losses
2. Local or dynamic pressure losses.
- The dynamic losses are caused due to the change in direction

or magnitude of velocity of the fluid in the duct. The change in
direction of velocity occurs at bends and elbows.
∆𝒑𝒊 ∆𝒑𝒊
𝑪= 𝝆∗𝒗𝟐ൗ
=
𝒑𝒗
𝟐
Where:
𝐶 = local loss coefficient [-]
∆𝑝𝑖 = total pressure loss [Pa]
𝑝𝑣 = velocity pressure [Pa]
𝜌 = density [kg/m³]
𝑣 = velocity [m/s]
3. Duct classification

Duct classification.
Duct systems can be classified in terms of their:
- Purpose
- Velocity
- Pressure

Duct classification by purpose.
- Air supply duct

- Return air duct
- Fresh air intake duct
- Exhaust air duct

Duct classification by air velocity.
Three categories:
Duct system Air velocity

Low velocity 2~10 m/s
Medium velocity 10~12,5 m/s
High velocity 12,5~17,5 m/s

Duct classification by air velocity.
Low Velocity Duct Systems - Guidelines:
Application Air velocity

Residences, Theatres, … 3~5 m/s
Hotel rooms, Offices, … 4~6,5 m/s
Restaurants, banks, … 7,5~10 m/s

Duct classification by pressure.
Three categories:
Duct system Static Pressure limit (Pa)

Positive Negative
Low pressure 500 500
Medium pressure 1000 750
High pressure 2000 750

Duct classification.
Impact of velocity & pressure
Velocity: Pressure:
- Noise - Duct strength

- Vibration - Deflection
- Friction loss - Leakage

4. Duct shapes

Duct shapes

Duct shapes
- Round ducts:
- Are the most efficient in conveying moving air due to the greatest
cross sectional area and a minimum contact surface.
- Advantages:
- Lower pressure drop
- Less surface and less insulation
- Are available in longer length than rectangular ducts (less
joints)
- Better acoustic performance (the curved surface allows
less breakout noise).
- Less chance of dirt accumulating inside the duct
- Disadvantage:
- Need more clear height for installation

Duct shapes
- Rectangular ducts:
- Aspect ratio (AR) = width / height
- Rule of thumb: keep the aspect ratio as

low as possible (AR ≈ 1)
- AR > 4 much less efficient in
material use and great pressure b
drops
- 2 < AR > 3: best solution in trade
off added duct cost of material a
and pressure drop

Duct shapes
- Rectangular ducts:
- Disadvantages:
- Higher pressure drops
- More material is required for the same air flow rate
compared with round ducts
- The joints are difficult to seal (bigger risk on leakage)
- Duct with high aspect ratio can transmit excessive noise if
not properly supported.

Duct shapes
- Oval ducts:
- Advantage:
- Smaller height requirements than round ducts while
maintaining most advantages of the round ducts
- Disadvantages:
- Fittings for oval flat ducts are more difficult to fabricate or
modify in the field.
- Difficult of handling and shipping larger sizes
- Tendency to become more round under pressure
- Difficulties of assembling oval slip joints in case a large
aspect ratios

Duct shapes
- Flexible ducts - Regulated in Europe according to

standard EN 13180-2002
- Application of flexible ducting:
- In most countries, regulations restrict
the use to maximum 15 metres.
- Used mainly from a main duct to a
terminal unit (diffuser, …)
- Disadvantages:
- High pressure drops
- Acoustics

Duct shapes
- Equivalent duct diameter:
1,30 ∗ (𝑎 ∗𝑏)0,625
- Rectangular ducts: 𝐷𝑒𝑞 = (𝑎+𝑏)0,250
1,55 ∗ 𝐴0,625
- Oval ducts: 𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 𝑝0,250
and: Where:
𝜋 ∗ 𝑏2 𝑎 length of major axis [m]
𝐴= + 𝑏 ∗ (𝑎 − 𝑏) 𝑏 length of minor axis [m]
4
𝐴 cross sectional area [m²]
𝑝 = 𝜋 ∗ 𝑏 + 2 ∗ (𝑎 − 𝑏) 𝑝 perimeter of oval [m]

5. Duct sizing.

Duct sizing.
Three duct sizing methods are used:
1. Velocity method
1. Method of equal velocities
2. Method of reducing velocities
2. Equal friction method
3. Static regain method

Duct sizing: Velocity method
- This method sizes the duct by varying the velocity in the main and
the branch ducts. The maximum air velocity is situated near the fan
and the velocities are gradually decreasing towards the end of the
main duct.
- Evaluation of this method:

₊ Simple calculation
₊ Gives the possibility to choose the velocities in function of the
required level of comfort
- Arbitrary selection of velocities
- Application:
- Normally not used. Sometimes used for simple small duct lay-outs.

Duct sizing: Velocity method
- Duct design method:

1. Select suitable velocities in the main and branch ducts.
Air velocity v [m/s]

Main section Side section
Ventilation and low pressure airconditioning Recommended Max. Recommended Max.
Residential buildings 3,5~5 6 3 5
Public buildings 5~7 8 3~4,5 6,5
Industry 6~9 11 4~5 9
High pressure air-conditioning 8~12 15~20 8~10 18

Duct sizing: Velocity method.

2. Find the diameters of the main and branch ducts from air flow
rates and velocities.
𝑸 4∗𝑄
𝑨= 𝑑=
𝒗 𝜋∗𝑣
Where:
A Duct area [m²]
Q Air flow rate [m³/s]
v air speed [m/s]
D diameter [m]
Based on the calculated diameter, choose a commercially

available duct size and recalculated the velocity.
Duct sizing: Velocity method.

3. From the velocities and duct dimensions obtained in step 2, find
the frictional pressure drop for the main and branch ducts using
the friction chart.

Duct sizing: Exercise.
Given: 2 𝒎³Τ𝒔 1 𝒎³Τ𝒔

2 3
15 m 12 m D 18 m F
6m
A C E
Fan
6m - Velocity in the main duct (A) v = 8 m/s

B
- Dynamic loss coefficient
- for upstream to downstream = 0,3
1 𝒎³Τ𝒔 1 - for upstream to branch = 0,8
- for elbow = 0,8
- For the outlets = 1
Duct sizing: Exercise – Velocity method.
Solution:
1. Select a velocity for the downstream ducts and branches: 5 m/s

2. Calculate the ducts cross sectional surface and diameters.
3. Select a commercially duct diameter and recalculate the velocity.
Duct Q [m³/s] v [m/s] A Calculated Commercial Corrected

[m²] diam. [m] diam. [m] v [m/s]
A 4,00 8,00 0,500 0,798 0,800 7,96
B 1,00 5,00 0,200 0,505 0,500 5,09
C 3,00 5,00 0,600 0,874 0,900 4,72
D 2,00 5,00 0,400 0,714 0,710 5,05
E 1,00 5,00 0,200 0,505 0,500 5,09
F 1,00 5,00 0,200 0,505 0,500 5,09

Solution:
4. Calculate the pressure drop:

- Friction losses:
- Formula
0,022243 ∗ 𝑄1,852 ∗ 𝑙
∆𝑝𝑓 =
𝑑4,973
- Graph (Ashrae)
- Dynamic losses:
- formula
- Equipment losses: outlets


- Friction losses:
Duct Q [m³/s] v [m/s] d [m] l [m] Friction loss Graph Formula

[Pa/m] Pa Pa
A 4 7,96 0,800 15 0,85 12,75 13,19
B 1 5,09 0,500 6 0,70 4,20 4,19
A+B 16,95 17,38
C 3 4,72 0,900 12 0,30 3,60 3,45
D 2 5,05 0,710 6 0,50 3,00 2,65
A+C+D 19,35 19,28
E 1 5,09 0,500 18 0,70 12,57 12,57
F 1 5,09 0,500 6 0,70 4,20 4,19
A+C+E+F 33,12 33,40


- Dynamic losses:
Duct C v [m/s] ρ [kg/m³] l [m] Dynamic pressure loss

[Pa]
𝜌 ∗ 𝑣²
∆𝑝𝑑 = 𝐶 ∗
B --> B 0,3 5 1,200 4,500 2
B --> O 0,3 5 1,200 4,500
M --> B 0,8 5 1,200 12,000 C = 0,3 for Branch to Outlet
O 1 5 1,200 15,000 0,8 for Main to Branch
Legend: B = Branch; M = Main; O = Outlet 1,0 for outlet

5. Balancing:
Duct Friction Dynamic Outlet Total Balancing requirement

A+B 17,38 12,00 15,00 44,38 25,022
A+C+D 19,28 16,50 15,00 50,78 18,620
A+C+E+F 33,40 21,00 15,00 69,40 0,000

Duct sizing: Equal friction method.
- Is used for supply, exhaust & return air duct systems and
employs the same friction loss per unit of length for the entire
system

- Duct design procedure:

1. Select the maximum air velocity in the main duct close after the
fan outlet.
2. Use the friction chart: knowing the velocity and the air flow,
determine the friction rate per meter of duct length and select
the diameter

- Duct design procedure:

3. Use the friction rate value obtained in step 2 to determine the
diameters for all the other sections of the ductwork.
4. The total friction loss in the duct system is calculated by
multiplying the friction loss per meter of length to the equivalent
length of the most critical path of the ductwork, having the
maximum resistance.

- Advantages:
- Straight forward and simple
- It reduces the air velocities in the direction of the air flow, which
reduced the potential air flow generated noise
- Most appropriate method for Constant Air Volume (CAV) systems.
- Limitations:
- There is no equalization of pressure drops in duct branches unless the
system has a symmetrical lay-out. Balancing dampers must be installed
to balance the system.
- Not recommended for Variable Air Volume (VAV) systems. If used for
VAV supply duct design, the terminal unit require pressure
independent control capability to avoid excessive flow rates when duct
pressure is high.
- Not flexible and adaptable for future lay-out changes.

Duct sizing: Exercise – Equal Friction Method
Exercise:
1. Velocity in Main duct: 8 m/s

(given)
2. Frictional pressure drop:
∆𝒑𝒇 𝟎, 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟑 ∗ 𝑸𝟏,𝟖𝟓𝟐 𝑃𝑎

= = 0,89
𝒍 𝒅𝟒,𝟗𝟕𝟑 𝑚

Exercise:
3. Calculated the duct sizing for the other branches:
∆𝒑𝒇 𝟎, 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟑 ∗ 𝑸𝟏,𝟖𝟓𝟐

=
𝒍 𝒅𝟒,𝟗𝟕𝟑
∆𝒑𝒇𝑨 ∆𝒑𝒇𝑩 ∆𝒑𝒇𝑪 ∆𝒑𝒇𝑫

Equal friction method: = = = =…
𝒍𝑨 𝒍𝑩 𝒍𝑪 𝒍𝑫
𝑄1,852 𝑄1,852 𝑄1,852

= = = …
𝑑𝑒𝑞 A 𝑑𝑒𝑞 B 𝑑𝑒𝑞 C

3. Calculated the duct sizing for the

other branches:
e.g.
1,852
𝑄𝐵 4,973
Duct Q [m³/s] d [m]
𝑑𝑒𝑞,𝐵 = 𝑑𝑒𝑞,𝐴 ∗
𝑄𝐴
1,852 A 4,00 0,798
4 4,973 B 1,00 0,476
𝑑𝑒𝑞,𝐵 = 0,798 ∗ C 3,00 0,717
1
D 2,00 0,616
𝑑𝑒𝑞,𝐵 = 0,476 m E 1,00 0,476
F 1,00 0,476

Exercise:
4. Pressure drop calculation:

- First we need to know the new
velocity in the ducts:
• Calculate the surface Duct Q [m³/s] d [m] A [m²] v [m/s]
from the diameter
• Calculate the new A 4,00 0,798 0,500 8,00
velocity [A*v = constant] B 1,00 0,476 0,178 5,62
C 3,00 0,717 0,404 7,43
D 2,00 0,616 0,298 6,70
E 1,00 0,476 0,178 5,62
F 1,00 0,476 0,178 5,62

Exercise:

I. Friction losses:
- Using the friction diagram
- Using the formula (more accurate) Duct Q [m³/s] v [m/s] d [m] l [m] Friction loss Graph Formula
[Pa/m] Pa Pa
A 4 8,00 0,798 15,000 0,89 13,37 13,36
B 1 5,62 0,476 6,000 0,00 5,35
A+B 13,37 18,71
C 3 7,43 0,717 12,000 0,00 10,69
D 2 6,70 0,616 6,000 0,00 5,35
A+C+D 13,37 29,40
E 1 5,62 0,476 18,000 0,00 16,04
F 1 5,62 0,476 6,000 0,00 5,35
A+C+E+F 13,37 45,44

Duct sizing: Exercise – Equal friction method.
Exercise:

II. Dynamic losses:
Duct C v [m/s] ρ [kg/m³] l [m] Dynamic pressure loss
[Pa]
B --> B 0,3 5 1,200 4,500
B --> O 0,3 5 1,200 4,500
I 0,8 5,62 1,200 15,141
0,8 6,70 1,200 21,567
II 0,3 7,43 1,200 9,947
III 0,3 5,62 1,200 5,678
O1 1 5,62 1,200 18,926
O2 1 6,70 1,200 26,959
O3 1 5,62 1,200 18,926
Elbow 0,8 5,62 1,200 15,141
Legend: B = Branch; M = Main; O = Outlet

Exercise:

III. Total pressure losses:
Duct Friction Dynamic Outlet Total

A+B 18,710 15,141 18,926 52,778
A+C+D 29,402 31,514 26,959 87,874
A+C+E+F 45,439 30,766 18,926 95,131

4. Balancing:
Duct Friction Dynamic Outlet Total Balancing requirement

A+B 18,710 15,141 18,926 52,778 42,354
A+C+D 29,402 31,514 26,959 87,874 7,257
A+C+E+F 45,439 30,766 18,926 95,131 0,000

Duct sizing: Exercise – Velocity method versus Equal Friction Method.
- The velocity method results in larger duct diameters than the

equal friction method due to the velocities selected in main
and branch ducts
- Due to the larger ducts in the velocity method, the required fan
power is lower than for the equal friction method.
57 Title - Internal use only

Duct sizing: Static regain method.
- Static regain is the process of converting velocity pressure into

static pressure.
𝒑𝒕 = 𝒑𝒔 + 𝒑𝒗
- The objective of the static regain method is to obtain the same
static pressure at diverging flow junctions by changing the
downstream duct sizes.
- The static regain method applies to supply systems only.

Selection procedure:
1. Select the velocity in the main duct.
2. The velocities in the successive runs are reduced so that the gain in
static pressure due to the reduction in velocity pressure equals the
frictional pressure drop in the next duct section.

1 ∆𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑓,2 + 𝑝𝑑,2 2
∆𝒑𝟐 = 𝒑𝒇,𝟐 + 𝒑𝒅,𝟐 = 𝑹 ∗ 𝒑𝒗,𝟏 − 𝒑𝒗,𝟐
𝑅 is the static pressure regain factor.

Selection procedure:
3. If section 1 is the outlet of the fan, the flow and the velocity
(see 1.) are know. In section 2 both flow and velocity are
unknown. A trial and error method needs to be followed to
give the dimensions of section 2.
4. The procedure is followed in the direction of the airflow, and in
the same way all the dimensions for the downstream ducts are
obtained.
5. The total pressure drop is obtained from the pressure drop in
the longest run and is used for the fan selection.

- Advantages:
1. All duct sections have uniform static pressure at all branches and
outlets: simple outlet selection & correct air quantity at each
outlet.
2. The duct system will stay in balance because the losses and gains
are proportional to a function of the velocities: excellent method
for designing Variable Air Volume systems.
3. Less material
4. Less noisy.

- Disadvantages:
1. Calculations ay become difficult in case of many dynamic losses.
2. In systems with a large pressure drop in a section near the fan
outlet, the velocity could be reduced to the minimum within a
few sections in such a way that all the ductwork downstream
would be sized using minimum velocity.
3. Another disadvantage could stem from specifying a very low
minimum velocity. Ducts would then tend to be very large at the
end of long branch runs. The velocity at the end of long duct runs
may become too small for proper air distribution in the space to
be conditioned.

6. Duct insulation

Duct insulation
Designer:
- Building thermal load
- Comply with Building regulations
Minimum Thermal insulation
Maximum thermal performance Thermal losses:
1. Heat transfer (due to temperature

difference between the air in the duct
Energy savings
and the environment)
2. Condensation risk

Duct insulation.
Heat transfer in ducts.

Where:
𝑼∗𝑷∗𝒍 𝒕𝒆 −𝒕𝒍 𝑞𝑙 heat loss/gain through duct walls [W]
𝒒𝒍 = − 𝒕𝜶 𝑈 overall heat transfer coefficient of duct wall [W/(m²K]
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟐
𝑃 Perimeter of bare or insulated duct [mm]
𝑙 duct length [m]
𝑡𝑖 ∗ 𝑦 + 1 − 2 ∗ 𝑡𝛼
𝑡𝑒 = 𝑡𝑒 temperature of the air entering in the duct [°C]
(𝑦 − 1) 𝑡𝑙 temperature of the air leaving the duct [°C]
𝑡𝛼 temperature of the air surrounding the duct [°C]
𝑡𝑒 ∗ 𝑦 − 1 + 2 ∗ 𝑡𝛼 𝐴 cross sectional area of the duct [mm²]
𝑡𝑙 = 𝑉 average velocity [m/s]
(𝑦 + 1) 𝜌 density of the air [kg/m³]
𝑐𝑝 specific heat of the air [kJ/(kg*K)]
𝐴𝑉𝜌𝑐𝑝 d diameter of the duct [mm]
y = 2,0 ∗ for rectangular ducts
𝑈𝑃𝐿
𝑑𝑉𝜌𝑐𝑝
y = 0,5 ∗ for round ducts
𝑈𝑃𝐿

Duct insulation.
Supply ducts:
• Insulation reduces the rate of thermal loss to the surroundings.
• Due to the relative small temperature difference between supply
air and the space through which the ducts are routed, a 25 mm
fiberglass blanket is almost always sufficient.
Return air ducts:

• Only need to be insulated if they pass through an environment
which adversely affect the return air temperature.
Exhaust air ducts:

• Are normally not insulated

Duct insulation.
Exterior insulation:
• Contact with hangers, supports, … .
Interior insulation:
• Do not apply for clean rooms, laboratories, … .
Ducting on roofs:
• In cooling load dominated areas, ducts should be covered with
highly reflecting coating.

Duct insulation.
Duct liner:
• Is used “to line” the inside of rectangular metal ductwork.
• 25 mm material is used for thermal protection of
ductwork that passes through unconditioned spaces
• 13 mm material is frequently used as acoustical insulation
for reducing air and equipment noises.
Duct wrap:
• Is a blanket insulation used on metal ductwork passing through
un-conditioned spaces.
Duct wrap is providing better thermal protection than duct liner

but is of little benefit acoustically.

7. Conclusions

Thank you

Fundamentals of Duct Design

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Top secret

Fundamentals of Duct design

3 Fundamentals of Duct design - Internal use only

4 Fundamentals of Duct design - Internal use only

5 Fundamentals of Duct design - Internal use only

Air flow is the result of a pressure differential between two points.

6 Fundamentals of Duct design - Internal use only

Fundamental laws of physics:

Fundamental laws of physics:

∆𝒑𝟏>𝟐 = 𝒑𝒕𝟏 − 𝒑𝒕𝟐

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Static pressure: Velocity (or dynamic) pressure:

Total pressure (𝑝𝑡 ) 𝒑𝒕 = 𝒑𝒔 + 𝒑𝒗

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- The static pressure is equal in all directions

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The system resistance in duct work can be divided into:

2. Local or dynamic losses

3. Equipment pressure losses

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1. Pressure losses by friction (Darcy-Weisbach)

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𝑅𝑒 < 2.300 Laminar flow

For standard air:

Altshul developed a simplified formula which was modified by Tsal

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2. Local or dynamic pressure losses.

- The dynamic losses are caused due to the change in direction

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Duct systems can be classified in terms of their:

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- Air supply duct

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Duct system Air velocity

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Low Velocity Duct Systems - Guidelines:

Application Air velocity

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Duct system Static Pressure limit (Pa)

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- Noise - Duct strength

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- Rule of thumb: keep the aspect ratio as

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- Flexible ducts - Regulated in Europe according to

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- Equivalent duct diameter:

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Three duct sizing methods are used:

2. Equal friction method

3. Static regain method

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- Evaluation of this method:

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- Duct design method:

Air velocity v [m/s]

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- Duct design method: