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Mechanical Behaviour
Pushing a spring Release
Regains
Original length Original length
Crack Propagation
Crack Propagation
Fatigue Oscillatory loading
# Failure implies deviation from desired performance. * Eventually can lead to breaking of material.
Notes on the Classification of Mechanical Behaviour
The classification presented is for ‘convenience’ and many details have been ignored.
In the uniaxial tension test (loading of specimen in uniaxial tension), dislocation ‘activity’ starts well below
the yield stress (as we shall see later)→ plasticity in the microscale (in the ‘elastic’ region!!).
Creep also leads to ‘plastic deformation’!
Fracture in ductile material also involves plasticity at the crack tip level.
During fatigue loading (loading oscillating in load/stress, usually below the yield stress),
dislocation activity can lead to surface intrusions and extrusions (plastic deformation at the
microscopic level).
Plastic deformation is volume conserving, while elastic deformation (in general) is not.
Hydrostatic states of stress tend to cause volume changes, while shear stress tend to cause
shape changes.
* More will be said about that, when we talk about anelasticity and creep.
What kind of mechanisms can lead to ‘failure’?
Elastic deformation
Particle coarsening
Tension / Compression
Bending
Modes Bending
of
Deformation Shear
Torsion
Deformed configuration
Torsion
Shear Note: modes of
deformation in other
contexts will be
defined in the topic on
plasticity
Tension Compression
Deformation: a fundamental perspective
At a more fundamental (material) level there are only two types of deformations$:
Tension/compression wherein bond length is increased/decreased
Usual tension/compression
During bending
Shear bond angle is distorted
Usual shear
Torsion*
In this chapter (and the course), (most of the time) we will assume that the loading
is applied slowly (quasi-statically) i.e. wave propagation and contact
damage effects can be ignored.
$A general case is a mixture of the two.
* In torsion the strain varies radially outward.
Funda Check What can happen to a ‘material’ body (solid) on the application of external
loads/forces/constraints?
Contraction/dilation
Volume change
What can happen to a
Or a
material body (solid) combination
when we apply Shear Shape change of these
forces/constraints to the
outside of the body
Rigid body rotation Orientation change
Example showing how parts of a single body may have different responses to loading
Q&A What is the difference between external force and internal response of a material?
Let us consider the pulling of a body (say a metal with the elastic limit). At equilibrium the
internal force (P’) is equal and opposite to the external force (P). This can be better visualized
using a cut in the body CC’. The internal force appears due to stretching of the bonds.
Materials have positive stiffness and resist deformation.
Structures on the other hand may display negative stiffness under special circumstances (like
during buckling).
Funda Check What is the difference between simple and pure shear?
Usually we apply ‘simple shear’ forces on a body. Though this is called simple shear it is clear that with
just two forces the body will not be in equilibrium (moment balance is not satisfied). This implies that
there has to be additional ‘hidden’ forces (as shown in Fig.1b). These forces ensure moment balance. To
understand this let us consider a block on a table being sheared by force ‘T’. Friction provides the
opposite force on bottom surface (T).
At the material level, pure shear can be considered as simple shear + rotation of /2 (for small shear).
Fig.1
b
c
a
Note the bottom
Simple Shear The way the diagram is drawn the body is not in equilibrium!
Elastic
Deformation
Plastic
What is a spring?
A spring can be thought of as a ‘device’ which changes tensile loading to torsional loading at the fundamental
(material) level!
What is a conducting solenoid?
A current carrying wire produces circular magnetic fields. A solenoid can be thought of as a ‘device’ to covert
circular fields to a linear field (in the core of the solenoid) it some sense the opposite of the spring above.
Forces and Stresses
(Here we restrict ourselves to ‘solid bodies’)
One can only apply forces or loads (we cannot apply stresses!).
In some sense we can also impose displacements.
Stresses develop inside the body.
* We can also impose constraints which can result in stresses in the body (we can heat a block
between two ‘rigid’ walls and stresses will develop in the block).
On Heating
We had noted before that we cannot apply stresses we only apply forces/loads.
The forces are typically applied on the external surface of the body; but we can apply body
forces too (body forces are applied throughout (or to a part of) the volume of the body; i.e. to
every point in the body).
Origins of body forces include:
(i) gravity mass in a gravitational field,
(ii) magnetic force magnetic object in a magnetic field,
(ii) electric force charged body in a electric field.
So what does one mean when he/she says that “I applied stress”?!
He/she usually implies that a force was applied on a given area of material (on the surface).
If the force was normal to the surface tensile/compressive force
If the force was tangential to the surface shear force
How are stress and strains related to the external loading?
Even when externally a tension is applied, regions in the material may experience shear
stresses this is an important aspect as microscopically plastic deformation is caused by
shear stresses and one observes that plastic deformation can be caused by externally
applied tension on a specimen.
To understand this let us consider a small square region ‘R’ in a specimen.
Under the action of the applied load (in the elastic region) the square region R becomes a
rhombus. [Plane stress (2D stress) conditions have been assumed here]. A square can
become a rhombus only by the action of shear stresses. This implies that there must be
shear stresses acting on the planes ‘p1’ and ‘p2’ (figure below).
Note: even if we apply normal loads, shear stresses can develop within the material and
vice-versa.
Normal stresses
on faces not shown
, , , T
Variables in deformation
n m
Strain hardening exponent Strain rate sensitivity