Basic ideas of space time

Hubble’s Law (that far away galaxies recede faster)

implies that the universe is expanding uniformly in all
directions, like a photocopy enlargement.

Important Points:
1. It is space itself that is expanding, NOT the galaxies
rushing outward into previously existing empty space.
2. Things held together by gravity, like the galaxies
themselves, do not expand.
3. The redshift observed in Hubble’s Law is technically
due to wavelengths expanding with the expanding
space, not the Doppler effect, but the formulas are the
same as long as the redshift is small.
4. Mass is condensed form of energy (E=mc2).
Why expanding?
Can the expansion be explained by our best theory for the
structure of space and time, Theory of General
Relativity?

How mathematically to describe the expansion?

 The notion of space-time
• Space–time is a mathematical model that combines space and time
into a single continuum. Spacetime is usually interpreted with space as
being three-dimensional and time playing the role of a fourth
dimension that is of a different sort from the spatial dimensions. By
combining space and time into a single manifold, physicists have
significantly simplified a large number of physical theories.
• In classical mechanics, the use of Euclidean space instead of spacetime
is appropriate, as time is treated as universal and constant, being
independent of the state of motion of an observer. In relativistic
contexts, however, time cannot be separated from the three dimensions
of space, because the observed rate at which time passes for an object
depends on the object's velocity relative to the observer and also on the
strength of intense gravitational fields, which can slow the passage of
time.
 Light cone
• An example of a light cone, the
three-dimensional surface of all
possible light rays arriving at and
departing from a point in
spacetime. Here, it is depicted with
one spatial dimension suppressed.
• time-like curves, with a speed less
than the speed of light. These
curves must fall within a cone
defined by light-like curves. In our
definition above: world lines are
time-like curves in spacetime.
 General Relativity: Spacetime Intervals

Two events happen in spacetime. They are

separated in space by Δr and in time by Δt.
• Time-like interval
o One event can affect the other
o c Δt > Δr
• Space-like interval
o One event cannot affect the other
o c Δt < Δr
• Light-like interval
o Light from one could affect the other
o c Δt = Δr
 • Postulate of GR: Mass and energy curve spacetime.
• Maybe the expansion is an aspect of this spacetime
curvature.
• Quantitative result of GR: Einstein equation (1915):

Tensor calculus required to describe spacetime curvature =

Tensor calculus required to describe distribution of matter &
energy

The Einstein equation is not generally

solvable!
 Einstein equation first simplified for our universe by
Friedmann, using a simplification called the cosmological
principle.

Cosmological Principle:
The universe is homogeneous and
isotropic.

Homogeneous: roughly the same in every location.

Isotropic: roughly the same in every direction.
What is this “Dark Energy” term that pops up?
• It is an extra constant term allowed in the solution to the
Friedmann equation (, capital lambda)
• If it is nonzero, it is a constant “extra” energy possessed
by empty space, called the cosmological constant.
• If it is positive, it would act repulsively (opposite to
gravity), and accelerate the expansion of the universe.
History of Solution:
1. Friedmann equation solved by Einstein (1922). Result: a
should be growing or shrinking, NOT constant.
2. BUT: Astronomers at that time (before Hubble) thought
that the universe was static, so Einstein set  positive to
balance gravity and force a static universe.
3. The expansion of the universe is discovered by Hubble
(1929).
4. Einstein realizes his original solution was OK after all. He
resets =0 in the solution, and calls  his “greatest
blunder”.

BUT, what is allowed often exists…

5. Since 1999, several groups of astronomers
attempt to measure the slow down in the
expansion due to gravity…
 Principle of Equivalence: Einstein 1907
g


Box
stationary in Box
gravity field accelerates
in empty space

Box
falling
freely 
g Box moves through
space at constant velocity
 Equivalence Principle
• Special relativity: all uniformly moving frames are
equivalent, i.e., no acceleration

• Equivalence principle:
Gravitational field = acceleration

freely falling frames in GR

=
uniformly moving frames in SR.
 Tides
• Problem:

r 2

r 1
moon

• Gravity decreases with distance => stretch…

 Tides

• Tides = gravity changes from place to place

not freely falling

?

freely falling ?
? ?
not freely falling
 Light rays and Gravity…
• Remember: gravity bends light…

accelerating observer
=
gravity
 Light Rays and Gravity II
• In SR: light rays travel on straight lines

=> in freely falling fame, light travels on straight

lines

• BUT: to stationary observer light travels on curved paths

=> Maybe gravity has something to do with…

curvature of space ?
 Curved Spacetime
• Gravity warps time

BUT: in spacetime, time and

space are not separable
fast

=> Both space and time are

curved (warped)

This is a bit hard to vizualize

slow (spacetime already 4D…)
 GR: Einstein, 1915
• Einstein: mass/energy squeeze/stretch spacetime away
from being “flat”

• Moving objects follow curvature (e.g., satellites, photons)

• The equivalence principle guarantees:

spacetime is “locally” flat

• The more mass/energy there is in a given volume, the

more spacetime is distorted in and around that volume.
 GR: Einstein, 1915
• Einstein’s “field equations” correct “action at a distance”
problem:

Gravity information propagates at the speed of light

=> gravitational waves

r?
 Curvature in 2D…
• Imagine being an ant… living in 2D

• You would understand:

left, right, forward, backward,
but NOT up/down…

• How do you know your world is curved?

 Curvature in 2D…
• In a curved space, Euclidean geometry does not apply:

- circumference  2 R
- triangles  180°
- parallel lines don’t stay parallel

2R
R
R
<2R
=180
Curvature in 2D…
Curvature in 2D…
 Geodesics
• To do geometry, we need a way to measure distances
=> use ant (let’s call the ant “metric”), count steps it has
to take on its way from P1 to P2 (in spacetime, the
ant-walk is a bit funny looking, but never mind that)
• Geodesic: shortest line between P1 and P2
(the fewest possible ant steps)

ant
P1 P2
 Geodesics
• To the ant, the geodesic is a straight line,
i.e., the ant never has to turn

• In SR and in freely falling frames, objects

move in straight lines (uniform motion)

• In GR, freely falling objects

(freely falling: under the influence of gravity only,
no rocket engines and such; objects: apples, photons,
etc.)
move on geodesics in spacetime.
 Experimental Evidence for GR
• If mass is small / at large distances, curvature is weak
=> Newton’s laws are good approximation

• But: Detailed observations confirm GR

1) Orbital deviations for Mercury (perihelion precession)

Newton: Einstein:
 Experimental Evidence for GR
2) Deflection of light
 Black Holes

• What happens as the star shrinks / its mass increases?

How much can spacetime be distorted by a very massive
object?

• Remember: in a Newtonian black hole, the escape speed

simply exceeds the speed of light

=> Can gravity warp spacetime to the point where even

light cannot escape it’s grip?

That, then, would be a black hole.

Black Holes
 Black Holes
• Time flows more slowly near a massive object,
space is “stretched” out (circumference < 2R)

• Critical: the ratio of circumference/mass of the object.

If this ratio is small, GR effects are large (i.e., more mass
within same region or same mass within smaller region)

1) massive 2) small

???

???
 The Schwarzschild Radius
• GR predicts: If mass is contained in a circumference
smaller than a certain size
gravitational
constant
2 G
critical
circumference
Circumference  2M  2 speed of
mass c light

space time within and around that mass concentration

qualitatively changes. A far away observer would
locate this critical surface at a radius
Schwarzschild
2GM
RS  2  3( M / M Sun ) kilometers
radius

c
• Gravitational time dilation becomes infinite as one
approaches the critical surface.
 Black Holes
• To a stationary oberserver far away, time flow at the
critical surface (at RS) is slowed down infinitely.

• Light emitted close to the critical surface is severely

red-shifted (the frequency is lower) and at the critical
surface, the redshift is infinite.

From inside
this region
no information
can escape red-shifted
red-shifted into
oblivion
 Black Holes
• Inside the critical surface, spacetime is so warped that
objects cannot move outward at all, not even light.

=> Events inside the critical surface can never affect

the region outside the critical surface, since no
information about them can escape gravity.

=> We call this surface the event horizon

because it shields the outside completely from any

events on the inside.
 World line and GTR
• The use of world lines in general relativity is basically the
same as in special relativity, with the difference that
spacetime can be curved. A metric exists and its dynamics
are determined by the Einstein field equations and are
dependent on the mass distribution in spacetime. Again the
metric defines lightlike (null), spacelike and timelike
curves. Also, in general relativity, world lines are timelike
curves in spacetime, where timelike curves fall within the
lightcone. However, a lightcone is not necessarily inclined
at 45 degrees to the time axis. However, this is an artifact
of the chosen coordinate system.
General Relativity:Summary

• GR: Gravity is not a force

o It is a non-Euclidean geometry
• Very close to Newtonian gravity
• Tests
o precession of Mercury
o deflection of starlight
• Mechanism: Actually -- none!
o "...there is no theory of gravity beyond the mathematical form." -
Richard Feynman
General Relativity:
Principles and Theorems

• "Local" effects are different than "global" effects

o Local = very nearby
• Space near mass "curves"
• Time near mass "slows"
• Equivalence Principle
o All things fall together
• Birkhoff's Theorem
o Ignore symmetric outside stuff
• Gravitomagnetism
o is to G as B is to E.
General Relativity: Concept of Spacetime

• Spacetime
o Space and time combined into one coordinate system
o time like a fourth spatial dimension
o still three spatial dimensions
o lines represent coordinate system
 General Relativity:
Principles and Theorems

You are in a small elevator. Is it possible to tell if you are

accelerating downward without gravity or near a gravitating
mass?

1. No.
2. Yes.
3. Only if the elevator eventually stops.
 General Relativity:
Principles and Theorems

1. No.

In GR, pure linear acceleration is indistinguishable from

gravity. This is a statement of the equivalence principle.
 General Relativity:
Principles and Theorems

You are in a small elevator. Can you tell the difference

between being near a gravitating mass or in a space station
spinning to produce "artificial gravity"?

1. No.
2. Yes.
3. Only if "small elevator" is a euphemism for "physics hell".
 General Relativity:
Principles and Theorems

2. Yes.

The artificial "gravity" created by rotation is inherently

different than gravity, although it may feel the same at
first. One way to tell the difference is to rapidly spin
some object. The object will try to maintain its original
spin axis. Therefore, if the object precesses, you might
be on a spinning space station.
 General Relativity: Equivalence Principle

"It is only when there is numerical equality between the

inertial and gravitational mass that the acceleration is
independent of the nature of the body." - Einstein

• Weak Equivalence Principle:

o All objects fall the same in a vacuum.
General Relativity: Equivalence Principle

• Strong Equivalence Principle

o ALL experiments appear the same when done
 in a gravitational field, or
 in a linearly accelerating laboratory.
o G should be the same in the early universe.
 General Relativity: Spacetime Motion

Two events happen in spacetime. They are

separated in space by Δr and in time by Δt.

• Closed timelike curve (Δr = 0; |Δt| < 0)

o A curve that comes back to the same spatial point at an
earlier time (or later time)
o backwards time travel allowed in GR
o need other physics to disallow?
o will cover time travel in other lectures
General Relativity:
Energy Conditions

• Energy is conserved locally in GR.

o Consequence of time symmetry
o Consequence of Noether's theorem

• Energy is NOT conserved globally in GR.

o Example: cosmological redshift -- where does the
energy go?
o Potential energy is really just a bookkeeping
device.
 Not defined generally in GR.
General Relativity: The Key Equation

Principle Equation:

• Guv is the Einstein tensor

o shows how spacetime curves
• guv is the metric tensor
o shows spacetime geometery
• Tuv is the Stress Energy tensor
o shows energy and energy flow
• G, c, Λ are all constants
General Relativity: Curved Space

Example: Triangles

Top: Triangle area

is less than Euclidean

Middle: Triangle area

is more than Euclidean

Bottom: "Flat." Triangle

area is exactly Euclidean.