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(1) The orbits are ellipses, with focal points ƒ1 and ƒ2 for the first planet and ƒ1 and ƒ3 for the second planet. The Sun is placed
in focal point ƒ1. (2) The two shaded sectors A1 and A2 have the same surface area and the time for planet 1 to cover segment
A1 is equal to the time to cover segment A2. (3) The total orbit times for planet 1 and planet 2 have a ratio a13/2 : a23/2.
Errors resulting from the accuracy of the orbit
computation procedure itself
Data used are P code pseudo-ranges, and although the
tracking geometry is not strong (most of the tracking
stations are in the equatorial belt), accuracies better than
5 m are achievable. Errors resulting from unpredictable
orbital motion during the period since upload
These are essentially the prediction errors. Their
magnitude can vary from a few meters (close to the time
of navigation message upload) to several tens of meters.
EE depends on:
Number and location of tracking stations
Orbital force model
Satellite geometry
There are two types of ephemerides (plural of ephemeris or file of values from which the
position and velocity information of satellite at a given time can be derived):
(i) Broadcast ephemerides
(ii) Precise ephemerides
(i) Broadcast ephemerides These are actually predicted satellite positions broadcast within
the navigation message that are transmitted from the satellites in real time.
Satellites tracking data obtained from monitor stations is used by MCS to compute new
parameters for the satellite orbits which are transmitted back to the satellites.
Upload is performed daily with new predicted orbital elements and transmitted every hour
by the navigation message.
This ephemerides is acquired in real time by a receiver capable of acquiring either the C/A
or P-code.
(ii) Precise ephemerides These are based on actual tracking data that are post-processed to
obtain the more accurate satellite positions.
These are available at a later date and are more accurate than the broadcast ephemerides
because they are based on actual tracking data and not predicted data.
For non-military users, these ephemerides are available in post-mission mode with delay
from 12 hr for IGS ultra rapid orbit to about 12 days for the most precise IGS precise service.
Corresponding accuracies for these precise orbits are in order of a few decimeters to 1
decimeter respectively. Details of different ephemerides is given in Table 9.2 where the
term latency indicates the time gap after which the data is available.
There are two problems with satellite clocks
(a) relativistic effect
(b) clock drift
(a) Relativistic effect From theory of relativity, clock in orbit will appear to run faster than on earth
(more speed and weaker gravitational force). It results in two effects:
(1) First effect:
One has to take into account the time dilation before satellite is sent to orbit. To ensure that
clocks will actually achieve the fundamental frequency of 10.23 MHz, the frequency is set a bit
slow before launch (10.22999999545 MHz).
(2) Second effect:
It is attributable to eccentricity (0.02) of orbit causing time error of 45.8 ns. This error is corrected
in GPS receiver itself avoiding an error of about 14 m.
(b) Clock drift Each GPS block II and IIA satellites have four high quality atomic clocks, two cesium and
rubidium atomic clocks. One of the cesium clocks is used for time-keeping and signal
synchronization as they behave better compared to rubidium clocks; others are backups.
Stability of GPS clocks:
Rubidium clocks: 1 to 2 parts in 1013 over a period of one day or about 8.64 to 17.28 ns per day
Cesium clocks: stability improves to 1 to 2 parts in 1014 over 10 days
Hydrogen masers: 1 part in 1014.
Unavoidable temporally variant clock errors are source of a significant bias which are monitored
by the control segment during tracking data analysis. The primary purpose of clock correction is
to reduce error from about 1 ms of satellite clock error to around 30 ns of GPS time.
GPS antenna receives incoming satellite signal and converts its energy into an
electric current to be handled by it. Antenna phase center, the point at which the
GPS signal is received, does not coincide with its physical (geometrical) center
and varies depending on
the elevation and the azimuth of the GPS satellite
the intensity of the observed signal
Error magnitude depends on the antenna type, and is typically in the order of a
few cm.
Difficult to model the antenna-phase-center variation and, therefore, one should
be careful when selecting the antenna type.
The following points may be noted:
Due to its rather small size, this error is neglected in most of the practical GPS applications.
For short baselines with the same types of antennas at each end, the errors are highly
correlated over distance, the phase-center error can be canceled sufficiently by differencing if
the antennas are oriented in the same direction. Hence, using a single frequency might be
more appropriate for short baselines in the static mode.
There are different phase-center errors on L1 and L2 carrier-phase observations thus affecting
the accuracy of the ionosphere free linear combination, particularly when observing short
baselines.
Mixing different types of antennas or using different orientations will not cancel the antenna
phase center variation error.
Results from limitations of the receiver's electronics.Therefore, a good GPS system should have a
minimum noise level.
The contribution of the receiver measurement noise to the range error will depend on the quality of
the GPS receiver. Typical average value for range error is of the order of 0.6 m (at 1σ level).
Generally, a GPS receiver performs a self-test when the user turns it on. However, for high-cost
precise GPS systems, user can perform system evaluation by following two tests :
zero baseline
short baseline tests
(a) Zero baseline test Provides useful information on the receiver performance and identify receiver
problems such as interchannel biases and cycle slips. However, it does not provide any information
on the antenna/preamplifier noise.
Involves using one antenna/preamplifier followed by a signal splitter that feeds two or more GPS
receivers. As one antenna is used, the baseline solution should be zero; any nonzero value is
attributed to the receiver noise.
(b) Short baseline test Useful to evaluate the actual field performance of a GPS system to account for
the antenna/preamplifier noise component.
Use short baselines of a few meters apart, observed on two consecutive days.
In this case, the double difference residuals of one day would contain the system noise and the
multipath effect. All other errors would cancel sufficiently. As the multipath signature repeats every
sidereal day, differencing the double difference residuals between the two consecutive days
eliminates the effect of multipath and leaves only the system noise.
Ionospheric delay At the uppermost part of the earth's atmosphere,
ultraviolet and X-ray radiations coming from the sun interact with the gas
molecules and atoms causing gas ionization resulting in a large number
of free negatively charged electrons and positively charged atoms and
molecules.
Such a region of the atmosphere where gas ionization takes place is
called the ionosphere.
Ionosphere extends from an altitude of approximately 50 km to about
1,000 km or even more. In fact, the upper limit of the ionospheric region
is not clearly defined.
Ionosphere is a dispersive medium, which means it
bends the GPS radio signal : causes a negligible range error, particularly if the
satellite elevation angle is greater than 50
changes its speed during passage through various ionospheric layers to reach
a GPS receiver: causes a significant range error.
affects different frequencies differently
Electron density within ionospheric region is not constant and changes
with altitude and time.
Station dependent
errors
Single Differences
Used to reduce satellite clock and orbit errors, and localized atmospheric errors.
Double Differences
Used to reduce satellite clock and orbit errors, localized atmospheric errors, and receiver
clock errors.
Usually adopted by the final carrier phase GPS solution. Relative GPS also uses this
approach.
Triple Differences
Difference between two double differences from measurements recorded at subsequent
epochs.
Assuming no cycle slips, or loss of lock has occurred, this eliminates the integer ambiguity,
hence used to detect for cycle slips and loss of lock.
It is possible to smooth (process of reducing the variability in a
dataset by using sevarl algorithms) code pseudoranges by using
phase pseudoranges with the help of combination
of phase and code pseudorange observables for real-time
positioning.
It can be derived from the previous code range data and the
change in the carrier phase between two
instants.
Let for dual frequency measurements at epoch t1, the code
pseudoranges be RL1(t1 ), RL2(t1 ) and
the carrier phase pseudoranges be ΦL1(t1), ΦL2(t1).
After scaling code pseudoranges to cycles by dividing them by the
corresponding carrier wavelength
and by using the two frequencies fL1, fL2
GPS modernization includes :
Modification of 12 Block IIR satellites implementing military (M) code on the L1 and L2
frequencies and a modern L2 Civil Signal (L2C).
The first modified Block IIR (or IIRM) was planned for launch 2004.
Development of the new Block IIF satellites, providing 1176.45 MHz (L5). Table 16.4 gives
charcatreistics of L1, L2, and L5 civilian signals.
GPS Block IIF satellites scheduled for launch beginning in 2005.
Improvements in Block IIF satellites
Extended design life of 15 years,
Faster processors with more memory, and
A new civil signal on a third frequency.
At the current GPS satellite replenishment rate, all three civil signals (L1-C/A, L2-
C/A, and L5) will be available for initial operational capability by 2010, and for full
operational capability by approximately 2013. Characteristics of modernized
signals is given in Table 16.5 and Figure 16.2.
L2C & L5 code New L2C
will be shared between civil and military signals and
will have 2 BPSK modulated carrier which are in phase quadrature with each other.
Space vehicles, IIR-M and IIF will have two additional civil ranging codes, L2CM
(civil moderate length) and L2CL (civil long).
The following provides a brief description of the future of satellite navigation systems
(Ekta, 2004): Galileo system has increased the prospect of a multilateral world for global
navigation satellite systems.
Main concerns regarding the future of navigation system is interoperable and compatible
coexistence of GPS and Galileo (two common center frequencies in E5a/L5 and L1).
European proposal to overlay the Galileo Public Regulated Service (PRS) on a part of the L1
band where US plans to put its new military M-code has created considerable concern.
This issue currently being discussed through NATO and a US-EC technical working group.
Together, GPS and Galileo will offer unprecedented performance, in particular to local
high-precision users, including for safety-critical applications.
Placing more satellites in orbit will increase the number visible to a user's receiver.
Galileo must offer clear advantages to users to surpass the free service of GPS.
Users should be free to choose which system or combination of systems best meets their
needs
In Asia, Japan is planning to create a regional augmentation - the Quazi-Zenith Satellite
System (QZSS).
Technical work on GPS-QZSS cooperation began in December 2002 with cooperation of
U.S.
India and China formally pledged its participation in the European Union's Galileo.
India is also planning to help Russia in developing GLONASS.
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