2018 - CDEV011 - All - Slides - Final 2

Facilitators: Mr.
NJ Mokoele and Mr MG Makgamatha

Class room ground
rules
• BE PUNCTUAL in all the classes
• LATE COMERS ARE NOT ALLOWED in
class
• MUTUAL RESPECT amongst persons
• Attend all classes
• Participation is paramount
• CELL PHONES AND EARPIECES are
NOT allowed in class
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Objectives
• To have the ability to define the concept development
• To be able to define poverty, economic growth,
economic development
• To differentiate between economic growth and
• To understand the relationship between development
and economic growth
• To understand the evolution of development
management
Conceptualising development
• Development is a concept which is contested both
theoretically and politically, and is inherent both complex
and ambiguous
• Its meaning is informed by contextual issues such as
past and present circumstances, perception, values and
beliefs
• Development is a wide concept with numerous contexts
• Development means different things to different people
• It maybe used normatively (desirable process of the
state)
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• Thus development of any country or region can be
seen as a process by which traditional low
technology society is transformed into a modern,
high technology society
• Conceptualising developments differ country to
country or region to region or from person to person
• In order that development addresses the people’s
needs, we should learn about development from a
point of view of those benefiting from it
• However, those less attuned to the contextual reality
of developing world generally conceptualise
development as a change, growth, advancement,
progress and improvement
• As if development always relates to something good/
something better than people current reality
• For others, there is nothing inherently good about
development
• At a global scale, development was used to westernise
non-Western society and rob unsuspecting people of
their land, culture and indigenous system
• Many authors claims that development has failed and
at worst it has always been a hoax
• Development was designed to cover up damage being
done to developing world and its people
– Some may argue that pre 1994 the concept of development was
abused
– Development became a tool of exploitation and dehumanisation
– However, the present government preaches a humanistic
approach (people centred) towards development
Development
• Development can be defined as a process which
enables human being to realise their potential, build
self confidence and live life of dignity and fulfilment.
• Or involves change, improvement and validity, a direct
attempt to improve the quality of live
• Or a process by which the members of the society
increase their personal and institutional capacities
to mobilize and manage resources to produce
sustainable and justly distributed improvement in their
quality of life, consistent with their own aspiration
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• Development means good societal change and
change in a human condition
• In the 1950s and 1960s a vision of the
liberalisation of people dominated development
discourse
• Development relate to the reduction of poverty and
of the MDGs
• The world is moving from MDGs to what now?
• Because development is about improving human
condition, thus it should be for and about the
people, their needs and circumstances
• People should form the central part in development
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Views of development
Neoliberalism – a capitalist
perspective
Structuralism- state is in control
Interventionism
People centred / alternative
Post development
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• Development should notnature
Integrated be view as
of
modernisation, industrialization or breaking the
dependency development
syndrome between third world and
first world countries.
• Modernisation and industrialisation are
microwave of development
• Development should address the poverty
situation of the people
• Microwave of development also claim to
address poverty but only in an indirect way
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• Poverty cannot be regarded as lack of money, but
manifest itself in many things such as malnutrition,
morbidity and illiteracy
• Development should address all this manifestation
of poverty
• If development is about breaking down poverty,
then it should be stated that development cannot
be sectionalized
• A person who needs health services invariably
needs basics such as education, a balance diet,
shelter and employment
• Development must be holistic
• It must addresses all these areas in order to
address the manifestation of poverty
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• The problems of addressing poverty in an
integrated / holistic way is two fold:
• Firstly: Development take place through
projects
• Projects its one dimensional as it addresses
one need such as child health
• Secondly: the government is the problem,
• Government is the most important development
agent and is a divided entity
• It is divided in departments, which are often
further divided into branches
• There is no integration in government
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Conditions enabling
development
Health
Education
Employment
Democracy
Environmental protection
Housing
Food
security
Development and economic growth
• Economic and social development of the poorest
countries is perhaps the greatest challenge facing the
society in the present time
• Let me direct you to the difference between the three concepts:
– Economic development can be defined as efforts that
seek to improve the economic well-being and
quality/standard of life for a community by creating and/or
retaining jobs and supporting or growing incomes and the
tax base
– Social development is defined as prioritizing human needs
in the growth and progression of society.
• Social development also governs the norms and conventions that
govern human interaction.
• The focus is on improving the lives of regular citizens, especially the
poor, to make society a better place for everyone.
• Economic growth is an increase in the amount of goods
and services produced per head of the population over a
period of time.
• About 1bn people live in abject poverty and
they suffer from malnutrition, lack of safe
drinking water, shelter, health care and
education
• Poverty is concentrated in developing counties
• The standard of living is commonly measured
by the total amount of goods and services
produced in a given period of the population or
what is called Gross Domestic Products per
capita(or GNP if net income from abroad is
added)
• This is determined by the number of people who
work and their productivity
• The proximate cause of poverty is the low
productivity of labour associated with low level of
physical and human capital (education)
accumulation and low level of technology
The economic growth of a country refers to
the increase in outputs of goods and
services that a country produces over an
accounting period.
E.g. if a country is said to be growing at 5 per cent per
annum, it means that the total volume of its GDP is
increasing at this rate
• Economics growth, however, is not the same as
• The process of economic (or social) development
must imply a growth in living standard,
• But its a much wider concept than growth in per
capita income alone
• Growth, it might be a necessary condition for
economic and social development of nations
• But it is not a sufficient condition, why?
– Because an aggregate measure of growth or per capita income pays no
attention to how the output is distributed amount the population
– It says nothing about consumption of output (whether the goods are
consumption goods, investment goods, public goods such as education
and health provision)
– And it gives no indication of the physical, social and economic
environment in which the outputs are produced.
• Growth rates of nations cannot be taken as a
measure of the increase in welfare of the
society because the welfare of people is much
more inclusive than the level of income alone
• If the process of economic and social
development is defined in terms of an increase
in society’s welfare, a concept of development
is required which embrace not only economic
variables and objectives, but also social
objectives and values for which society strive
• The ideas of two prominent thinkers on the subject
of development: Goulet and Sen
• Goulet (1971) as one of the economist
distinguished 3 basic components or core values
that must be included in any true meaning of
development
– Life sustenance
– Freedom
– Self esteem
• Sen (1983, 1999) argues in the similar vein with
Goulet that economic growth should not be seen
as an end to itself
• But it should be viewed as a means to the
achievement of much wider set of objective by
which economic and social development should
be measured
• Sen continue to assert that development should
focus on the expansion of people’s entitlements
and the capabilities that these entitlement
generates
• And income is not always a good measure of
entitlement.
• Sen define entitlement as the set of alternative
commodities bundles that a person command
in a society using the totality of rights and
opportunities that he or she faces
• Thus, Goulet, Sen and other economist
constructed an alternative measure of economic
and social development to supplement statistics on
growth rates and level of per capita income
• Human Development Index (HDI) was
used as an alternative measure
• It focused on life expectancy, educational
attainment and standard of living as
measured by per capita income
• HDI is deliberately devoted scarce
resources to human development
Task 1
1. Define the concept development? (5)
2. Why is it significant for South Africa to pursue a people
centred approach to development? (10)
3. Using the ideas of development from the two (2)
prominent thinkers (Goulet and Sen), describe how a
country with high economic growth can be classified as
underdeveloped?
• Cover page should have group Surnames, initials and
student number; lecturer’s name and course name and
course code; date of submission
• The task should be one page long excluding cover page
• The task must be Typed, font size 12 and times new
romans as font type
• Submission date: 07th of Feb 2017 on or before 16:00
LECTURER: Mr. NJ Mokoele; Email: ngoako.mokoele@ul.ac.za
Objective of this chapter
• To understand and debate the theories of
development with reference to South Africa’s
development trajectory
• To gain insight into competing paradigms &
theories of development
• FIRST CONCEPT TEST TO BE WRITTEN
NEXT WEEK ON THE 15th FEBRUARY 2018
Introduction
• Scientific inquiry into theory of development
started shortly after World War ii with the 1950s
and early 1960s being dominated by
modernisation theory
• The late 1960s and early 1970s were
characterised by dependency theory
• Since the late 1980s the emphasis has shifted
from these two macro theories of development
to a micro theories
• The emphasis was now on people and
communities
Development imperatives
• After the 2nd world war, Europe embarked on
reconstructing the country
• The instrument used was a Marshall plan which
was launched by US government
• Marshall plan was heralded as US financial
help to the devastated economies and
infrastructure of western Europe
• It injected a lot of money to UK, France, west
Germany and more which generated
confidence in the role of overseas economic aid
to improve the impoverished countries
• Thus richer countries have a role to play in
developing poorer countries
• The former president of US said that:
– We must embark on a new program for making the
benefits of our scientific advances and industrial
progress available for improvement and growth of
underdeveloped areas
– Humanity possesses the knowledge and skill to
relieve the suffering of these
– I believe we should make available to peace-loving
peoples the benefits of our store of technical
knowledge in order to help them realise their
aspiration for better life
Dualism
• Underdeveloped countries were/are characterised
by dichotomous or dualistic nature
• Advanced and modern sectors of the economy
coexist alongside traditional and backward
sector
• Lewis did not differentiate between economic
growth and development
• He envisaged a division of the economic system
into two distinct sector, the capitalist and
subsistence
• The subsistence sector, according to Lewis,
consists predominantly of small scale family
agriculture and has a much lower per capita
output than the capitalist sector
• This is where manufacturing industry and estate
agriculture, either private or state-owned, are
important elements
• Lewis suggests that development involves an
increase in the capitalists’ share of national
income due to growth of the capitalist sector
at the expense of the subsistence sector,
with the ultimate goal of absorption of the
later by the former
• Lewis was criticised for failing to appreciate
the positive role of small scale agriculture in
the development process
• Rural subsistence sector could actually be an
important objective rather than a constraint in
development policy
• Some scholar would argue that the
development of certain areas at the expense of
others is likely to inhibit the growth of the
economy as a whole
• Others regarded initial regional inequalities as a
prerequisite for eventual overall development
• In this case, the new investment of activity and
growth will tend to be concentrated in already
expanding region because of their derived
advantages, rather than in other areas of the
country
• Thus, labour, capital and commodities move
to growing regions which may lose their
growing region, setting up so called
backwash effects in the remaining regions
which may lose their skilled and enterprising
workers and much of their locally generated
capital
• Other believe that such dualism may be
beneficial to the less dynamic areas from what
is called centrifugal spread effects
Modernisation Theory
• In the late 1950s and early 1960s, a considerable
emphasis was placed on the transfer of significant
amounts of aid and provision of extensive technical
assistance to the third world counties
• This arose after the World War II in the western
social sciences
• Central components were to promote economic
growth
• It assumes that all societies progress in a linear
fashion from traditional state to modernity
Wednesday, 02 May 2018 Thanks 33

1. The economic approach
• The best known modernisation theory, and
a representation of the economic
approach, is that of the economic historian
• The economic historian W.W. Rostow
• The essences of this thinking is that if
LDC are to become developed, they need
to follow the trajectory/path taken by the
developed countries
• Do what the western countries did, and all
the your development problem will be solved
• Forget about tradition
• It regards western culture as superior to all
other
• In its crudest form it can be seen as the
perpetuation of the old colonial style,
• This is where values other than western ones
were ignored or regards as primitive, backward
and unsophisticated

Rostow’s stages of growth
• Traditional stage – characterised by
agriculture, no saving
• Pre-conditions for take-off – emergence of
new political elites
• Take off – emergence of new and rapid
growing industries
• Drive to maturity – technological advancement
• Stage of high mass consumption – durable
goods and services

Criticism of modernisation
theory
• Development experience of the western
countries could be relatively unproblematic
applied to the third world countries
• It could not easily accept that the third world
countries might differ fundamentally from the
first
• Traditional life is regarded as primitive
• Western materialisation is wrongfully regarded
as the ultimate goal of development
Dependency theory
• It originated in the Latin America during the early
1960s
• This was as a results of failure of modernisation
paradigm to address the underdevelopment of
LDCs
• It argues that structuralist-inspired policy had failed
to break the link with the first world
• Dependency dominated development thinking in
the late 1960s and the 1970s
• Unfavourable terms of trade that existed between
these two groups of countries
• Poorer countries were exporters of cheap
primary products which were subject to
fluctuating demand and prices
• On the other hand they were obliged to import
expensive manufactured goods from the richer
industrialised countries
• Frank argued that underdevelopment is not a
natural situation

• Core-periphery model helps to explain
underdevelopment
• Underdevelopment of certain countries
and regions is maintained by
international capitalist economic
system which sucks resources from
periphery to the centre
• The movement of resources takes place in to
level:
• A national level: rural and urban areas in
developing countries
• International level: developed countries and
developing countries
National level
• Human and physical resources are
continuously being sucked from rural to
urban areas
• Thus there will be shortage of resources in
rural areas
• Developed urban areas than rural areas

International level
• The terms of trade that exists between
developed and developing countries are
unequal and favour the developed countries
• They draw highly needed skilled and resources
from developing to developed countries
• This perpetuates underdevelopment in LDCs
• This keeps the developing countries in poverty
and dependency

Characteristics of the Dependency
Theory
• Underdevelopment is a historical process.
• It is not a condition intrinsic to LDC
• Dominant and developing countries together
form a capitalist system
• Underdevelopment is an inherent consequence
of the functioning of the world system.
– The periphery is plundered of its surplus
– This lead to development of the core and
underdevelopment of the periphery
Criticism of dependency
theory
• It pays much attention to external factors and
ignores the internal factors that could explain
the underdevelopment of developing countries
• De-linking strategies
• It is argued that third world societies have
benefited from the contact with the
industrialised countries
• It tends to generalise about contemporary third
world countries

Competing paradigm
• From the end of world war II until the late
1980s, the attention of academics concerned
with development was essentially locked into a
conflicting discourse between 2 streams of
thoughts
• Although they have different philosophies and
ideological point of departure, they are both
prescriptive in nature
• They both propose an oversimplified macro
solutions to the development problematic in
LDC
• Dependency is rooted in the works of Karl
Marx- a western philosopher
• Thus, none of this paradigm can lay a claim to
being rooted either in African, Asian or South
American history
• In fact they share a western genealogy of
history
• Between 1950s to 1980s, the academic
discourse between the two competing
paradigms grew in intensity and complexity
• The living condition of the majority of Africans,
Asians and South Americans worsened to the
extend that this period can be described
Development tragedy
• Neither paradigms succeeded in bringing about
sustainable development
• Consequently, development was labelled as
obsolete and irrelevant
• Socialism, the basis of the dependency theory,
was collapsing and it was becoming evident that
the Western economic growth model was been
confronted with environmental constraint
• Development theorist continued with their debates
at times unaware that the world on which many of
their assumption were based had disappeared
• Development theory and practices had reached
impasse
Humanistic paradigm
• Failure of the competing paradigm to address
the underdevelopment
• Development cannot be studied merely using
theories
• Development had to be human centred
• In the 1980s saw a shift from the macro
theories to a micro approach
• This focused more on people and the
community

• People centred paradigm incorporates
aspects of the macro theories
• People should decide for themselves
what constitute better life
• Development is:
– For people
– By the people

People centred development in
South Africa: past to present
• Against the background of SA’s colonial and apartheid
history of disempowerment and top down decision
making
• SA’s first democratically elected government deemed
profound to embrace people centred development
• This was done through the 1994 economic policy
framework called RDP
• This have the potential address the injustices of the
past development efforts
• Its building block are empowerment, public
participation, social learning and sustainability
• Prior 1994, development was far from the
people
• It was top down initiatives
• This country’s history chronicles how the
concept of development was abused by
the National party government
• Development became a tool of
exploitation and disempowerment
• Many people were made poor through the
social and economic engineering called
development
Legacy of the past
• Policy of separate development was promoted
• Development was promoted by dividing the
population into 4 racial groups, each with a
political and social position within the system
• It is only through separation could the interest
of group be promoted
• This system brought hardships for majority of
the SA classified as non white
• White privileges alongside black poverty and
deprivation (land, economy, salaries, health,
education, welfare services)
• All of this, illogical as it may seem, it was done
in the name of development
• The delay in putting all race in an equal footing
further undermined the credibility of separate
development
• Since it meant that coloured, Indian, African
South Africans had to pay for services
• This was brought by discriminatory laws such
as Group Area Act (1950), Native Land Act
(1913), Coloured Area Act (1963) and Asiatic
Land Tenure Act (1946)
Post apartheid development
• Redefined development and the term integrated
(holistic), people centred development become the
buzzword used in the development lexicon
• Government policy following SA’s democratic elected
government reflected integrated, people centred
development approach
• It was committed to promote democratic, non racial
and non-sexist society
• This was characterised by integration between
decision makers from the public, private and
voluntary sectors, and the intended beneficiaries of
development
• Unlike separate development, integrated
development approach acknowledges the
development of all people irrespective of race,
gender or race, or whether they are living in
urban or rural areas
• The principles of people centred development,
formulated as the building block of development
– Participation
– Social learning
– Empowerment
– Sustainable
• Participation
– This approach, which sees public participation as a
basic need and a democratic right
– Development is people centred development if it
entails the active and voluntary participation of its
intended beneficiaries
– Public participation involves interchange of decision
making, views and preference
– It should be understood in the context of:
• Participation in decision making
• In implementation of development project
• In monitoring and evaluation
• In sharing the benefits of development
Self study
• Social learning
• Empowerment
• Sustainable
Facilitators: Mr. NJ Mokoele, Ms L Mmotlana & Mr MG Makgamatha
The new regionalism: a
prologue
• The project on new regionalism was born a few
year ago at the UNU/WIDER (United Nations
University / World Institute for Development
Economics Research) research centre in
Helsinki
• The recent participation concluded that the
recent wave of regionalisation throughout the
world warranted a new type of analysis
• This should go beyond classical integration
theory and emphasized the social, political and
cultural dimension, apart from the economic
which traditionally had been the focus
• Regions in this sense are not given neither are
they formal organisations
• Rather they are created and recreated in the
process of global transformation
• Regions are defined:
– Are territorially based subsystems of the
international system
– Are many varieties of regional subsystems with
different degrees of regionness that is, the degree
to which a particular region in various respects
constitutes a coherent unit
• Examples of regions in Africa
– Southern Africa (South Africa, Angola,
Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Botswana etc).
– West Africa
– Central Africa
– North Africa
– East Africa
• The new regionalism can be defined as a
multidimensional form of integration which
include economic, political, social and cultural
aspects and thus goes far beyond the goal of
creating region-based free trade regimes or
security alliances
• Some notable difference between old and new
regionalism are:
– Thus current process of regionalisation are more
from below and within than before
– Also ecological and security imperatives push
countries towards co-operation within new types
of regionalist frameworks
• Open regionalism is thus one way of coping
with global transformation, since an increasing
number of states realise that they lack capacity
an the means to manage such a task on the
national level
• The defining characteristics of the new
regionalism is:
– The new takes place in a multipolar global order
– Whereas, the old was marked by bipolar
(security and trading)
• Regionalism is one approach of dealing with
various global problems, but its content will be
conditioned by the nature of the problems
Globalisation and Regionalisation
• Regions is defined as a broad geographic
areas distinguished by similar features
• Regionalisation is understood as the
tendency to form decentralised regions
• Many of the geographical areas increasingly
acting as regions, a region been defined as a
group of countries with more or less explicitly
shared political project
• Regions are emerging phenomena:
ambiguously forming part of the process of
globalisation, supporting it according to some,
contradicting it according to others
• Regionalism is the process through which
geographical regions become significant
political and/or economic units serving as the
basis for co-operation and possibly identity.
• Globalisation is the interconnectedness and
interdependence of states, forming a process of
international integration arising from the
interchange of world views, products, ideas,
and other aspects of culture.
• In short, regionalism is inevitably linked with
globalisation.
• Whilst globalisation is the increased
interdependence of states: regionalism allows for
this dependence.
• For example, the European Union gives states the
foundation for free trade and therefore a Segway
leading into reaching globalisation.
• Regional trade blocks then have given states the
scope to increased communication, contact and
trade (in other words, an opportunity for
globalisation.)
– A trade blocks is a type of intergovernmental
agreement, often part of a regional intergovernmental
organization, where regional barriers to trade, (tariffs
and non-tariff barriers) are reduced or eliminated among
the participating states
Challenges of Globalism
• Since it probably is correct to say or reasonably
assume,
– that regionalisation in the current era relates to
globalisation as a response to challenges, we should
first agree of upon the meaning of globalism and
globalisation
• Global is a more recent concept in social science,
often used in a rather loose and ideological sense
for which globalism is appropriately expressed
• Globalism can be defined as programmatic
globalisation, the vision of a borderless world, in
which territory has lost all importance and
functionalism is predominant
• Functionalism is a theory that all aspects of a
society serve a function and are necessary for the
survival of that society
• It indicates a qualitative change in the
internationalisation process
• Globalisation may be regarded as an integrative
process, whereas internationalisation is simply
the spread of transnational activities
• Global refers to objective (compression of the
world) as well as subjective (planetary
consciousness process)
• In spite of the manifestation of globalisation, the
contemporary concern with phenomena such
as interdependence, world order or the global
system is to a large extend a cognitive
phenomenon; that is, it is a matter of how the
world is conceived
• If globalisation implies an observed tendency
towards a global world system, its origin can be
traced back in history
• Many forms of human inter-connectedness
across state boundaries were doubling through
the revolution in information technology
• This made the global system compressed
• The subjective sense of geographical distance
is dramatically changed, some even speak of
the end of geography.
GLOBALISATION
• The decline and demise of USSR, resulted in the
shift from the state socialism to the assumption of
a capitalist global system
– Socialism is a political and economic theory of social
organization which advocates that the means of
production, distribution, and exchange should be owned
or regulated by the community as a whole
– Capitalism is an economic and political system in
which a country's trade and industry are controlled by
private owners for profit, rather than by the state
• Growing influence of financial, economic and
cultural globalising force has made for a more
complex terrain for development
• Globalisation assumes the emergence of global
culture through a range of development such as:
– Satelite, and high tech global information system
– Global patterns of consumerism,
– Growing appeal of a universal wealthy cosmopolitan
life style
– The relative decline of the sovereign nation state; the
growth and international economic as well as political
agencies and the extension of the notion of human
rights
• Globalisation then refer to the world as a single
space
• Globalisation should be distinguished from
modernisation theory which assumes the
convergence of nation-states towards a
universalised form of industrial society
• Globalisation embraces two contradicting
processes of homogenisation and
differentiation / heterogenisation
• Despite the growth in the world economy recently,
poverty and income inequalities have increased
globally
• Inequality have grown in Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
countries
• Poorer developing regions relying on commodity
exports have to swim in strengthening and
adversarial currents in world trade
• Africa for e.g. has experienced a falling share of
world trade
• International development institutions are involved
in various development assistance programme
throughout the world
• World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF)
• They play a vital part in promoting development
mostly in developing countries
• Their multiple roles in the promotion, funding
and enhancement of development cannot be
ignored
• This is in a view of globalisation
• Globalisation is the increasing integration of
specifically the economic and financial system
of the countries
Perspectives of globalisation
• Randall and Theobald (1993) explain
globalisation as an intensive process of global
integration
• Integration often refers to the economic and
financial systems of countries
• It takes place in many level:
– The way investments and trade are carried out
– How international organisations, agreement and
regulations operate
– The type of government policy that are adopted
– Changes in peoples lives and livelihood strategies
• Globalisation is not homogeneous to everyone
• It differs from person to person depending on
whether one favours it or not
• The supporters generally define globalisation as
a process of free economies, particularly so that
trade between countries can take place more
easily
• In many views, is a best way to ensure that
economic growth will occur
• Free up means providing more opportunities for
business to make profits and reducing the
production and service delivery role of the state
• Supporters of globalisation acknowledges that
globalisation is accompanied by threats and
penalties
• This for countries that violate its requirement of
free up or an attempt to opt out of it or to de-
link from the global economy
• Who benefits this global economic growth?
• Penalties include withdrawal of foreign aid and
investment from countries that are in violation
• When supporters speak about globalisation
they are speaking about the spread of the
capitalist system and the free market ideologies
to every part of the world
• Those who oppose it say define it as a survival
strategies used by capitalism in respond to the
crisis in the capitalist economic system which
began in the 1970s
• Other call it a remote control colonialism
• A highlighted form of imperialism or even a war
against the workers of the world
• Opponents question the assumed positive link
between free market and democracy
• They argue the it produced less or no
democracy
• They raises two points:
– First, they argue that the increased power of
the TNCs/MNCs and the IMFs means that
the elected governments, other democratic
structures and community groups often have
less power to develop independent
alternatives to the policies imposed by the
northern countries (G8 countries)
– Second, they argue that with globalisation
came as an approach to politics which
appears democratic but actually
strengthening the power of business
IMF and WB in post apartheid
South Africa
• After the apartheid regime and ANC came to

power, SA’s sole loan after 1994 was granted in
1997 for the purpose of making small and
medium enterprises (SMEs)
• The real impact of WB post apartheid was not
mainly on lending money, but it was more on
policy advice e.g. GEAR
• It is said that if it was not for the home-grown
GEAR policy South Africa would have run
into more severe economic difficulties
• It was forced to take medicine from WB/IMF
from the position of weakness
• It seems that South Africa is not vulnerable
by dealing with WB and IMF as other African
countries
Globalisation and Development
• Globalisation consist of 3 principles: economic,
political and cultural
– Economic globalisation, distance has become less
important to economic activities (business operating
in a borderless world)
– Cultural globalisation, suggest that as western
forms of consumption and lifestyle spread across
the globe, there is an increasing convergence of
cultural style on a global norm
– Political globalisation, internationalisation is
regarded as leading to the erosion of the former
role and power of the nation state
• Homogenisation and Heterogenisation,
• This two generalised views have emerged
concerning the relationship between
globalisation and the patterns of development
• There is an assertion that the world is becoming
increasingly similar
• Globalisation is resulting in greater difference,
flexibility, permeability, openness and hybridity
• Again development is viewed as a process of
having uneven development and the
perpetuation and exacerbation of spatial
inequalities
Global Convergence, Divergence
and Development
• Divergence relates to the spheres of production and
observation that the places which make up the world
system are becoming increasingly differentiated
• In 1970s there was shift in global economic system: the
slow down of capitalist economies and rapidly
escalating oil price
• Dispersion of manufacturing industries to low labour cost
location, increasing control of trade and investment by
TNCs
• Thus, the increasing international division of labour and
the increasing salience of TNCs are leading to enhance
heterogeneity or divergence
• This is with respect to production, capital accumulation
and ownership
• In the contemporary world, such changes are
highly likely to be non-hierarchic in the sense
that they are focusing development on specific
localities and settlements
• However, others views this as a reverse trend
• That the increasing similarity which appear to
characterise world patterns of changes and
development
• There is one at least major respect in which
predominant patterns of what can be referred to
as global convergence is occurring
• This is in the sphere of consumer preference
and habits
• Of particular importance is the so called
demonstration effect
• This involves the rapid assimilation of North
American and European tastes and patterns of
consumptions
• These are in relation to collective consumption,
indebtedness and increasing social inequalities
• Such views to globalisation has a very
unsettling process both for cultures and for
identity of individuals
• It suggest the established traditions are
dislocated by the invasion of foreign influence
and image from the global cultural industries
• The implication of such influence are pernicious
and extremely difficult to reject or contain
• This standardisation is likely to be highly uneven,
especially when viewed in respect of social status
• Thus, it is the elite and upper income urban
groups who are most able to adopt and sustain
the goods thereby provided (health facilities, mass
media and communications technologies,
improves transport)
• It may be conjectured that the lower income
groups within society disproportionately receive the
bads (formula baby milk and tobacco product)
• Thus again the forces of globalisation may be
seen to be etching out wider difference on the
ground
• A direct and important outcome of this
suggestion is a strong argument that the form
of contemporary development that is to be
found in particular areas of developing
countries is the local manifestation and
juxtaposition of these two seemingly
contradicting processes of convergence and
divergence at the global scale
Globalisation context in Southern
Africa
• The demise and decline of the USSR and the shift
from socialism has seen development theory and
practice more susceptible to the assumption of
capitalist global system
• Globalisation in South Africa has been largely
internally generated
• Actors that promotes globalisation is a state and
major conglomerates in a country
• Under globalisation, capital is deregulated through
the international regulation states
• The policy formulation of most developing
countries is highly circumscribed
• Post-apartheid, South African state seemed to
enjoy the freedom to pursue heterodox
development strategy given its relatively low
level of external debt
• Globalisation originates in developed countries
of the north, thus serve the purposes of the rich
global neighbour
• Development cannot be achieved under the
condition of autarky or self-sufficient
development within national boundaries / region
• Hence, South African state is trying to negotiate
globalisation
• South Africa pursued a free trade with the
European Union, despite the warning that it will
be deleterious to the economy
• Globalisation as a social theory assumes the
emergence of a global culture through a range
of development such as satellite and high-tech
information system, globalised pattern of
consumerism and global sport
• The central theme of globalisation studies is the
heightened awareness of a world as a single
space
• South Africa economy is dominated by a group
of conglomerates
• The 4 largest of which controlled 83% of the
companies listed on the JSE prior the end of
apartheid
Impact of globalisation in South
Africa
• Globalisation in South Africa is from “inside out”
• Globalisation that is driven from “outside in” has
the strongest impacts
• The impact has been strong on job loses
• Major conglomerates have shifted their
headquarters to London
• As the nature of globalisation restructures,
South Africa experienced globalisation from
“outside in” (dependence)
• Several scholars have pointed out that the
notion of free trade is problematic given the
shift to a regional economic bloc
• They also pointed out that the international
market are predatory and rigged in the
favour of the major players
• However, despite the growing global
economy, poverty and income inequality
have increased globally
• Through capitalism (the rich becoming
richer and the poor becoming more poorer)
Globalisation and Marginalisation in
South Africa
• Globalization' has come to dominate discourses
of social, economic and cultural developments
in contemporary society
• Economic definitions highlight the importance of
trade, the growing importance of multinational
corporations, the extent and ease of
international capital flows, the importance of the
spread of technologies and ideas and the
globalization of production - but say very little
about hierarchies of power and social relation
• Other approaches emphasize the importance of
the compression of time and space as key
dimensions of globalization
• Globalization also involves the increasing
disconnection from place and connection to
space.
• It is defined as 'the intensification of worldwide
social relations which link distant localities in
such a way that local happenings are shaped
by events occurring many miles away and vice-
versa
• South Africa serves as a textbook example of
how globalization plays itself out in the semi-
industrialized world
• COSATU's influence on its alliance partner, the
African National Congress (ANC), has been
steadily eroding throughout the transition years
• Large numbers of organized workers have been
retrenched, casualized and/or forced into the
informal economy leading to a further
expansion of the burgeoning underclasses
• Black managers and workers have been
prioritized in public sector employment, but
black has also been the colour of most of the
victims of this neoliberal globalization, an
unfortunate legacy of the overlap of race and
class categories bequeathed by apartheid
• The net effect of this coupling of economic
globalization with democratic transition has been
devastating.
• According to the report of the Committee of Inquiry
into a Comprehensive System of Social Security for
South Africa, unemployment stands at 36 percent
for the overall population and at 52 percent for
African females.
• Poverty is pervasive and according to a recent
committee of enquiry for the Department of Social
Welfare, stands at an astounding 45 to 55 percent.
• About 10 percent of African people are
malnourished, and at least 25 percent of African
children are stunted
• Evidence suggests that key development
indicators such as unemployment and the number
of households without a breadwinner are
deteriorating.
• The level of inequality is also getting worse.
• One factor worth noting, however, is that the racial
profile of inequality is changing.
• This is reflected in the fact that the size of the
African component in the richest income decile
rose from 9 percent in 1991 to 22 percent in 1996.
• The racial profile of the poorest has, however,
remained black, leading many commentators to
conclude that the present economic dispensation
benefits only a tiny elite within the African
population
Introduction
• Rural poverty persist and remains a concern of
many developing countries
• This is regardless of the impressive
technological advancement in agriculture
• MDGs of UN (reduction of poverty by 2015)
• Agriculture is still the main source of income
and employment in rural area
• Rural livelihood under stress and rural poverty
is intensifying
• In order to improve food supply, agriculture was
intensified
• Thus leads to acceleration of deforestation,
soil degradation, damage to biodiversity,
pollution and vulnerability to pest attack
• And it contribute to environmental stresses
and extreme weather conditions, leading to
deteriorating food security
• Characteristically, forms of environment
degradation are generated by livelihoods
based o primary commodity production, such
as those of wage labourers in agriculture, or
petty commodity producers, some times
degraded to subsistence producers
• The vulnerability of rural people, created
by shifting seasonal constraints, short term
trends of change (such as liberalisaation
and globalisation), the spread of AIDS,
ethnic rivalry and conflicts influence
institutional structures and processes
which encourage them to pursue diverse
livelihood strategies to combat rural
poverty and vulnerability
• On of the problems of the third world
development was the struggle between the
interest of the urban areas and those of rural
areas
• The question was always one of either /or:
– Either the urban areas must be developed for the
best long lasting economic results
– Or rural areas must receive more attention because
poverty is more severe and visible there
• Thus planning amongst development planner
remain in a delegate balance
Wednesday, 02 May 2018 103

• The question is not either or; for two
reason:
– Poverty is bad in both urban and rural areas
• The poor in both areas needs drastic steps to be
emancipated out of poverty
– People who at the same point in time belong
to rural and urban households, and have
economic ties that is impossible to sever, tie
the rural and urban areas together
• The either/or approach results in urban
bias which has harm rural areas and their
inhabitants
Rural poverty
• The proportion of people living below $1 per
day declined marginally
• High population growth accounts of the
deepening level of poverty
• The spread of AIDS and other contagious
diseases such TB
• It is likely that state collapse, ethnic rivalry,
violent conflict and warfare in African conflict
zone been the major contributory factor to poor
performance of achieving MDGs
• Extreme poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa
• This is reinforced by the high level of
involuntary flow of populations within Africa,
either across international boundaries as
refugees or within national border as internally
displaced person (IDPs)
• The majority of transient populations are
located in rural areas, often contributing to
environmental stress due to intense due to
water, land and usage of energy, and forming
pockets of extreme poverty and vulnerability,
• With a disproportionate representation of
women and children (often as high as 80%)
• Poverty is much gendered
• The agreement by the G8 at Gleneagles, and
their commitment to increasing oversea aid,
particularly in Africa, in to principle, to reduce
rural poverty
• However, with the diversion of substantial
sums originally committed to poverty in to
debt relief, and prevarication among donors,
the aid package appears less attractive than
was first thought
• Rural poverty is endemic among the poor
households in the third world country
• Poverty manifest itself in a number of ways:
malnutrition, hunger and disease
• The groups which are affected include the
landless, the near-landless, female-headed
households, women and children
• Identifying a number of causes of the problems
of poverty and tackling them with a view to
possible solution will not eliminate poverty
• There many internal and external factors
exercise an influence
• Wednesday,
The problem02 May 2018 is complex 108
FRAMEWORK FOR INTEGRATED
RURAL DEVELOPMENT
• In dealing with the problems, it is important to
take note of the agenda for rural development
• At the same time it is also important to identify
the actors in rural development
• Their role is to address the agenda items
• They must do this in a peculiar kind of way in
which their action and that of the poor are
combined
• Thus the combination of the action and the
action of the poor make rural development
more integrated
Agenda
• Rural development is concerned with the
eradication of poverty
• There are several approaches to that task
• Some would like to see the poor receiving
relief and the gradually allowed, on a longer-
term basis, to address their situation
• Some want to see the poor released from
their poverty trap first

• It is stated the rural development is not
only to provide relief to the poor, the
eradication of poverty by inter alia
primarily addressing the following
issues:
– Equal treatment
– Land tenure
– Migration and population pressure
– Economic and political relations

Actors
• A variety of actors are active in the
field of development
– International organisations
– The state
– Non-governmental organisations
– Community-based organisation

Actions
• The shift in development thinking from a
large scale economic development and
institutionalisation to small scale,
sustained, self-sufficient development
also requires adjustments in the
implementation of rural development
• The shift emphasis on the knowledge,
abilities, needs and interests of the poor
are put first by means of a process of
empowerment
• People’s needs are defines by
themselves, are satisfied and social
security is provided
• In order to ensure sustainable
development each person and each
community must handle its own
resources and environment with
necessary care

RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION /
CITYWARD MIGRATION
• Most Southern African countries inherited
a dualistic socio-economic structure
• This is whereby a modern sector reside
side by side with a subsistence sector,
and the latter provides a livelihood for a
majority of the population in the region

URBAN GROWTH AND
RURAL POVERTY
• The colonial powers built enclaves of
privileges which are called private cities
• Harrison sums it up well by saying:
– The third world city is a dual city- an island of
wealth surrounded by black belt of misery
– Outside the bright, shining modern city with
skyscrapers, flyovers and desirable residences
– The poor are cramped in squalor, disease and
neglect, in shacks and hutments of plywood,
cardboard, mud or straw, usually without clean
water, sewers, health centres, schools, paved
roads or paying jobs
• Indeed urban poverty manifests itself through
the lack of jobs opportunities, housing and
other services
• Informal settlement are found on the outskirts
of the cities, away from place of employment
• A true symbol of South Africa’s apartheid cities
• The urban bias development does not extent
beyond the core of the city in the third world
• Rural poverty is transferred to urban poverty
• The world banks (1980) has estimated that in
the end of 1990s more than half of the poor
will be in urban areas
• This means there will be high demand of
services in urban areas
• Thus, the government needs to focus on
both rural and urban development
• In the process of dealing with the urban
problems, the rural poverty situation must
also be addressed

Climate change and conflict
• Capital alone is seldom the answer to rural
poverty alleviation
• Two factors that had a distractive impact in rural
livelihood are climate change and conflict
• The effects of increase drought and extreme
weather are likely to affect struggling rural
population in Africa and Asia than an
industrialised areas
• The costs of adapting to these changes is
estimated at between 5 to 10% of GDP
• Floods and drought associated with tsunamis
effect have made:
– Agricultural activities unpredictable
– This has led to climate change having broader
impact than in the immediate environment
– It is becoming a humanitarian disaster
– Involving soil erosion of land and water resources
– Distraction of livelihoods and social capital,
breakdown of state governance, its loss of
legitimacy and the exacerbation of conflict
Food security
• Food security exists when all people at all
times have physical and economic access
to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to
meet their dietary needs and food
preferences for an active and health life
Approaches to food security
• In the 1960s and 70s Malthusian fears that the
rapid growth of the world would outstrip food
production and lead to the widespread famine
meant that food production and availability,
rather than access where the key concern
• This came during food crisis in the 70s, when
the combination of poor harvests and reduced
food stocks led to rapid increases in the price
of food
• The price hike short lived and so did the focus
on food availability
• The 80s saw a growing awareness of the access
to food, determined both economically and socially
• Starvation is a characteristic of some people not
having enough food to eat
• It is not a characteristic of there being not enough
food to eat
• Subsequently, analyses of famine mortality added
the third dimension: utilization of food for
nourishment, in which health plays a major role
• Approaches to food security have shifted from
national and international concern about food
supply and self-sufficiency, to ensuring household
and individuals access food, and that individuals
are healthy enough to make full use of nutrients in
their own
Emerging challenges to food security
HIV/AIDS
• Recurrent food crises, particularly in southern
Africa, where HIV if prevalence rates are
highest in the worlds
• Thus placing HIV/AIDS in the food security
agenda
• Rural households affected by HIV/AIDS tend to
suffer falling assets and productivity
• Time spend caring for the sick reduce labour
time
• Money used for medication and funeral
arrangement
• HIV/AIDS and nutrition are interlinked
• People with poor diets are more
vulnerable to HIV infection
• Once infected, they develop AIDS quickly
• Once they have AIDS, their nutritional
requirement increase
• ARVs are only effective when couple with
adequate diet
Climate change
• It is expected to affect both food supply and
access
• Agricultural yield may fall even if they are at
their maximum temperature tolerance
• Decreased rainfall could affect agriculture
regardless of latitude
• There may be significant negative effects for
small farmers and pastoralists who are weakly
integrated into market
• Africa is considered most at risk of increased
hunger
• Changing food system
• Character of global food system is changing as
urbanisation, technologies and industrialization
change the way food is produced, marketed
and consumed
• Urbanization is changing dietary patterns and
preferences, leading to a nutrition transition
towards increasing proportions of proteins and
fats in people’s diet
• As a direct result, non- communicable diseases
like diabetes, obesity and high blood pressure
and heart diseases are emerging in developing
countries
• Proportional obesity rates are high in
Maxico and South Africa as they are in
USA
• Poor consumers may find themselves
paying high prices for less nutritious food ,
or being socially excluded because they
cannot afford a diet that society consider
normal
Seven policy option to address
urban and rural poverty
simultaneously
• Policies that expand direct government provision
of urban services by building up municipal
government capacity
• Policy that use market surrogates” to increase
the organisational efficiency and representative
of service provision providing public agencies
• Policies that lower the cost of providing services
through changes in regulations and methods of
delivery
• Policies that actively support self help and
service improvements by the poor
• Policies that promote public-private co-
operations and privates sector participation
in service delivery
• Policies that increase the effective demand
of the poor for services, employment and
income generational programmes
• Policies that changes population distribution

CONCLUSION
• It is important to realise that it is impossible to
give preference to one areas the detriment on the
other one
• The balance approach is needed
• All-out strategy is necessary where a clear policy
will enumerate agenda items for specific actors to
act on
• Only this way can poverty be tackled successfully
• The poor shown their perseverance and
enterprise
• They just need a vehicles of a strategy and
programme for them to play a major part in the
eradication of poverty
Introduction
• Many people recognise poverty when they see it,
but most cannot give a definition the is generally
accepted
• Poverty is a relative concept
• We have absolute and relative poverty
• When looking at the poverty in the third world
countries, one find a debate distinguishing
between rural and urban poverty
• Understanding the poverty trap in which the poor
are caught is an important dimension of the debate
on poverty
ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE
POVERTY
• Two broadly defined forms of poverty can be
distinguished by:
– Case poverty and community poverty
• Case poverty is found in more affluent societies
where the individual or an individual family suffers
poverty
• Their poverty is very visible compared to the living
conditions of the individuals and family in the
surrounding areas
• Case poverty occurs where certain individuals or
families do not share in the general well-being of
society
• Community poverty manifests itself where
almost everyone in a community is poor
• The living conditions of the more affluent individuals
or families are more visible compared to most of
those living close to them
• Community poverty is found mostly, but not
exclusively, in rural areas and informal and scatters
in cities
• Poverty can also be classified according to the level
of disadvantage experienced:
– Absolute and relative poverty
• Absolute poverty is descripted as a situation where
incomes are so low that even a minimum standard of
nutrition, shelter and personal necessities cannot be
– is stated as “a condition characterized by severe
deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe
drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter,
education and information
• Absolute poverty means that an individual is so poor
that his/her next meal may mean the difference
between life and death
• 20% of people in the world live in absolute poverty
• 85% live in rural areas
• Relative poverty is an expression of poverty of an
entity in relation to another entity
• E.g. in relation to SA, Lesotho is poor, in relation to
USA, SA is a poorer country
• Relative poverty is not the kind of poverty different
from absolute poverty, but rather be seen as
supplementary to the definition of absolute poverty
• Relative poverty refers to people whose basic
needs are met, but who, in terms of their
social environment, still experience some
disadvantages
• In other words, while managing to survive,
some people are materially disadvantaged
compared to others living in the same
community or society
• Whereas absolute poverty refers to a
desperate situation – the difference between
life and death – relative poverty refers more
to a comparison of level poverty
THE EQUILIBRIUM OF
POVERTY
• Attempts to eradicate poverty may bring some
relief, but soon the balance or equilibrium
returns and the poor remains as poor as before
• Does this connotes that we are chasing a
moving elephant?
• According to Galbraith (1979:46):
– What seems plausible (seeming reasonable or
probable) is real. The tendency of rich countries is
to increase income; the tendency of the poor
country is to an equilibrium of poverty. And in each
there is accommodation, in the one case to the fact
of improvement, in the other the hopelessness of
the prospect
• The fruits of successful development, such as job
creation are nullified by an uncontrolled increase
in population numbers
• The improvement in the socio-economic position
of the community are thus obliterated by some
forces operating in the society
• The poor community or society comes to accept
their poverty as normal - as they accommodate
their poverty
– A small farmer may be granted a loan to buy
farming equipment, but decide to spend it on
school fees: no income is generated and the loan
must be paid back
• Once the surplus money of a household is
depleted, it automatically returns to its
previous level of subsistence
• Thus the equilibrium of poverty is restored
• Reason behind equilibrium of poverty
• In the past is was attributed to capitalism,
the rich exploiting the poor
POVERTY IN RURAL AND
URBAN SECTOR OF A NATION
• The picture people have about third world
countries is of overcrowded cities surrounded
by squatter settlements
• This picture reflect only part of the magnitude
of poverty problem
• Poverty is largely a rural phenomenon
• In SA 75% of the poor still live in rural areas
• They are the people in the deprivation trap:
– Poor, weak, isolated, powerless and vulnerable
• Some manage to escape – mainly by
migrating to the cities
• Cities are viewed as placed of
opportunities
• The results of their move – migration- is
the densification of urban poverty
• When policies and measures of combating
poverty are considered, it is clear that rural
and urban poverty cannot be viewed in
isolation
• There is an overlap of causes, results and
influences which necessitates an
Causes and consequences of urbanisation and
urban poverty
• Urban area can be defined in special, social,
economic and demographic terms
• Urbanisation is a process in which
people(demographic aspects), services (social
aspects) and opportunities such as employment
(economic) are concentrated in a limited geographical
areas (spatial aspect)
• Urbanisation is a process, thus it is continuous
• Rural deprivation push people to the cities
• Too little land for income generation, too few job
opportunities, and the fact that schools and clinics are
few and far removed
• All this contribute to the hardships experienced by
rural inhabitant
• Urban areas seem to hold much better promise
and therefore pull people to towards them
• There would appear to be more employment
opportunities and better and more health and
educational facilities
• Reason why cities seem to hold so much
promise is because of urban bias
• This resulted from government policies that
favour investment and large development
project in cities
• Third world government tend to do more
capital investment on:
– Roads, schools, hospitals ad airfields in urban
areas which are, after all, where ruling elite mostly
find themselves
• Consequences of urbanisation in
SA:
– Lack of proper housing and urban
infrastructure urban areas currently
facing
– Informal settlements
– Overcrowding in urban centres
– Poverty
– Looking at the scope of poverty in
urban areas, it is clear that urban
bias is a self perpetuating process
Deprivation trap
• Deprivation attributes to taking away/
deficiency
• Deprivation of freedom means negation of
rights or liberty
• The poor are trapped in a cycle of poverty
and it is thus referred to as deprivation
trap
• To understand this trap one needs to
understand the type of disadvantage
which poor people experience:
– Poverty, physical weakness, isolation,
vulnerability and powerlessness
Clusters of disadvantage
– Household is poor
• While the majority of families are poor, rich
communities are also found in the same community
• The poor become poorer and the rich become richer
(capitalism theory)
• Thus the money that is distributed back to the
community should not be in a form of hand-outs,
because it promotes dependency
– Households is physically weak
• Families are large and consist of many children, as well
as aged
• Many mouths to feed with little income for basic needs
• Food is of poor quality and low nutrition
(undernourishment and malnutrition
– Households is isolated
• Communication is a problem
• People removed from social infrastructure such
as schools and medical care, employment
opportunities are scarce
• Illiteracy is high
• Lack of transport
– Household is vulnerable
• The poor are dependent on their land lords and
traditional authorities
• They live from hand to mouth
• When the father dies there is little hope for
survival
• Now the mother has to go work and leaving the
kids in the care of the aged or without care at all
– Household is powerless
• Landlords have a source of cheap
labour
• The poor are intimidated by the practice
of the rich, whom they are dependent
on for livelihood
• Because of their remoteness, the poor
have little, if any access to politicians
and opinion leaders
• They do not influence policy formulation
• This people have low status in the eye
of the society
Diagram of deprivation trap
Group task 1
• In your view, what is the difference between
poverty alleviation, poverty reduction and
poverty eradication? (12)
• “Poverty in many developing countries very
often has a female face”. Refute or support this
statement (12)
• Name and describe five (5) clusters of
disadvantage. And to demonstrate an
understanding of the clusters, provide practical
examples (20)
Total marks: 44 Submission: 09/04/2014
(13h00)
“THE CHANGE AGENT-PROJECT
BENEFICIARY PARTNERSHIP IN
DEVLOPMENT PLANNING – THEORETICAL
PERSPECTIVES”
Facilitators by: Mr NJ Mokoele, Ms L Mmotlana and Mr KI Makalela

Objectives
• Conceptualise the main concepts and
issues in the development planning debate
• To show the relationship and partnership
in planning between the change agent
and the beneficiaries of development
planning
Introduction
• Most of the classic publications on the “idea of
development” and “putting people first” profess that
development is considered to be an unalloyed or
clear good
• However, when the outcomes of people’s good
intentions as development planning change agents
are evaluated, development planning is
increasingly viewed as a two-edged sword,
simultaneously creating and destroying
• One of the most important reason for the failure of
projects is attributed to poor management
• The most frustrating feature of development and
planning is that people still forgets that the
beneficiaries of development should take centre
stage in planning
• It seems that change agents are slow learners
when it comes to why development planning fails
• A sad fact about planning is that change agents
somewhat continue to repeat the past mistake,
which is cause for concern in the development
fraternity
• Are there planning principles that change agents
continue to misinterpret?
• If the theoretical constructs of planning are simple
and rational, then why does it seem so difficult to
get people to participate in their own development?
• The approach is deliberately theoretical and
leans towards a humanist, micro level and
people centred interpretation of the
development and planning debate
• Planning is a broad term used to refer to a
wide range of activities that may be performed
at various spatial and operational levels
• In development planning, there are
approaches and set of tools that have and
are demonstrating their effectiveness in
creating sustainable development
• Past failure and future challenges call for a
break through in both thinking and doing
The meaning of development
planning
• In the light of continued high levels of
underdevelopment in developing countries, it
seems that development planning has been poorly
planned, poorly maintained, has failed in totality or
in the worst case has been absent from the start
• The failure of development planning still hunts
most governments and development institutions
• Planning agents need to scrutinise the planning
methodologies employed in successful project
• The deliberate choice of the term change agent
relates to the fact that “development is still
planned and delivered in a top-down manner to
its beneficiaries”.
• That is the fundamental reason why planning fail
• Those who often plan development without the
participation of the beneficiaries, are referred to as
change agents
• Change agent is problematic
• The usage of this term is precisely for the reason-
to connote the unacceptable process, used
internationally, through which development is
delivered by outsiders in prescriptive and top-down
manner to often “passive recipient and beneficiary”
• During development processes, the usage of
workable terminologies should be employed
• Avoid the usage of academic terms
• These issue stand in relation to a micro-level
/grassroots, humanistic and people centred
The concept of development
planning
• Development planning consists of two
component which complement one another
namely development and planning
• Linking the concepts of development and
planning
• Poor planning outcomes have shown that few
claims to have grasped the meaning of concept
development and the many faces it adopts in
numerous places all over the world
• Using holistic approach, we define development
from four interacting level on which new
development paradigm should be placed:
1. The normative level: development should be
people centred
• Most of the time, on the application side, the
key focus on people on the people – project
beneficiaries – stays in the textbook and
manuals
• Obviously, in theory and principle, people
should come before things, poorer people
should come before the least poor
• But do they?
• It is also correct to enable and empower the
poor to identify and demand what they want
and need
• This is the essence of the international call for
participatory development planning, a
partnership through which change agents work
closely with development beneficiaries in
project identification, implementation and
monitoring
• This new participatory planning paradigm
entails process of reversal in learning in which
change agent become not the expects but the
learners through a process of mutual social
learning, and the poor become their teachers
2. Conceptual level: development is not
progress in a single direction, but a process of
continuous adaptation, problem solving and
opportunity exploiting
• There is need for change agent to depart from
the traditional blueprint, rigid and prescriptive
top-down planning model towards a holistic
understanding of the meaning-giving social,
political and economic context at grassroots in
which development interventions take place
• Change agent need to be retrained or re-
orientated towards action research
methodologies that bring them closer to
people’s realities
• Empirical level: cover to closely integrated
elements:
• The social, political, economic and environmental
conditions at grassroots (both urban and rural) are
diverse and complex
• Local level challenges should be addressed
holistically and in an interdisciplinary manner, with
a partnership approach between change agents
and development beneficiaries
• The rate of change is accelerating, nothing is static
• The locals show an amazing capability to adapt
and change; and social learning is closely
linked to local meaning-giving contexts, social
capital and networks through which locals have
managed to survive against major odds
• Poor people are well aware of their situation
• They are dynamic and manage to adapt to ever
changing local context
• People are also capable of self-reliant organisation
and capacity building, giving the opportunity to
participate in their own development
• Those who enter the strange worlds of others in
the name of development should take few steps
backwards and reflect carefully on these
questions:
• What do I know about the local meaning-giving
context of the beneficiaries of my project?
• What can I learn from them and what can they
learn from me?
• Practical level: this level integrates all
the other levels
• The central thrust of this point of departure
is decentralised decision making and
grassroots participation and empowerment
• Together, these factors enable people to
exploit the diverse complexities of their
own conditions and social realities, and to
adapt to change
• Development is for the people, but when
development planning and implementation
are assessed, it is quite shocking to see that
people are often not the first priority
• People should be radically placed in the centre
of development
• A shift for macro-level to micro-level
approaches
• If the idea the development relates to people
might be confusing, then the word planning,
when in conjunction with development,
becomes even more confusing
• Planning is future oriented,
interdisciplinary, and comprises the task of
coordinating expertise and focusing on
mutual problem in order to reach long
term objectives effectively
• Planning entails anticipating the future and
formulation systematic programme of
action to attain desired goals
• The macro-level definition of development need
to be challenged if one agrees with Coetzee’s
declaration that “development is for the people”
• In other words, the micro level can be a
functional foundation and alternative to
development thought and planning intervention
• Planning interventions with the beneficiaries as
participants is meant to be a process of human
consciousness (being aware)
• To establish self-reliance through participatory
project management, beneficiaries must
manage and control their own development
process
• The fact that the change agent still work with
the notion of “know better” and plan on behalf of
project beneficiaries is astounding to observers
• In theory, development planning is the
combination of the two components
development and planning
• Convey and Hill (1990) describe it is “… a
particular types of planning activity, in which the
goal is the attainment of a developed society
and which involves trying to control or influence
the process of development designed to
achieve this goal”
Elements of planning
• Planning can be defined as a continuous process
which involves decisions, or choices, about alternative
ways of using the available resources, with the aim of
achieving particular goal at some time in the future
• These elements include the following:
– To plan means to choose
• Planning involves making decisions about which of a
number of courses of action to adopt, in order words
making choices
• Planning means choose between alternative
desirable activities because not everything can be
done at once
• Planning can only be done if information is available
on what choices there are and what the
consequences will be for every choice
– Allocating resources
• Resources are used here to refer to anything that is
considered by those making decisions to be optimal
use in achieving particular objective
• This include natural resources (water, land, minerals)
but also human resources, capital resources (roads,
buildings, and equipment) and finance
• Planning involves decisions about how to make use
of the available resources
• The quality and the quantity of these resources
have a very important effect on the process of
choosing between different courses of action
– Achieving goals
• It is not enough to say planning involves making
decisions about the use of resources
• This is because the best use of any particular
set of resources will depends very much on
what one is trying to achieve
• It is paramount to look at the relationship
between planning and the achievement of goals
• That is why planning is usually confined within
projects with clear objectives
–Planning for the future
• Another important element is time element
• Planning is inevitably concerned with the future
• The concern for the future manifests itself in
two ways:
– One manifestation is that an important part of
planning involves forecasting, or making predictions
about what is likely to happen in the future
• Predicting the outcome of alternative courses (the path
of travel or trajectory) of action in order to determine
which one to adopt
– The other manifestation of planning’s concerned
with the future is its role in scheduling future
activities
Advantages of planning
• Planning improves co-operation between department
and individuals in the organisation
• Gives direction to an organisation or an efforts by
assisting in the formulation of development objectives
• Requires from managers to have a vision of the future
which they should share all those participating in the
planning
• Continuous change in the environment necessitates
planning, which means that proactive management is
promoted
Obstacles to planning
• Planning is a very complex and continuous
process, problem or obstacles can be
expected.
• Typical obstacles include:
– Circumstances that influence the original
drafting and implementation of the plan
– Human factors
– Ineffective organisational system
– Management’s or government’s attitude towards
planning
The planning process
• The planning process normally differ from organisation
to organisation and from person to person
• However, there are some basic step in the typical
planning process that can be used to achieve
organisational goals and objectives in an orderly
fashion
• Basic steps of planning process
– Be aware of the opportunity
• Weighing up the various possible opportunity
• A good starting point in this regard can be a typical
SWOT (strength, weakness, opportunities and threats)
analysis
– Set a goal or a number of goals
• Its important to have a vision of where the
organisation wants to go and how to get there
• Goals and objective must be realistic, quantifiable
and reachable
– Define the current situation
• Aspects that should be looked at during this step in
the planning process are
• Identify resources and obstacles to planning
• Determine alternative action plans
• Evaluate alternative plans
• Choose the best action plan. All variables that
were identified must be taken into account to
determine the best alternative
• Formulate chosen plan
– Calculate plans by drawing up a budget
Introduction
• Project management has been around for many
years and will be applied by managers in
various fields for many years to come
• It typically takes place in a business, technical
and community- based environment
• These three application areas are by no means
the only areas, but they are the principal areas
• In order to understand the various aspects of
projects and projects management, we need to
understand the context or environment of
project management
The development of the discipline
• The origin of management of projects can be coined
back as far as the construction of the pyramids in
ancient Egypt and of the Great Wall of China (Van der
Waldt and Knipe, 1998: 61)
• This means that project management and it principles
have been present for decades and even centuries
• The modern management of projects is a discipline that
started in the 1930s with the United States air Corps’
and Exxon’s Project engineering co-operating function
• In North America, Bechtel’s 1951 to 1953 Transmountain
Oil Pipeline in Canada appear to have been one of the
first projects in which that organisation functioned as the
project manager
• It assign individuals with undivided responsibility for
integrating the whole projects
• Scheduling and risk analysis tools were developed by
1957 -1958 to assist in planning
• Critical Path Method (CPM) provides a cost control and
resources management capacities;
• And the programme evaluation and review
techniques (PERT) is used extensively as a tool to help
manage Polaris external environment
• Network scheduling tools (such as CPM and PERT)
were the main focus of most publications during the
1960s, but there some excellent exceptions to the case,
such as cleland’s and King’s Systems Analysis and
Project Management
• The increasing interesting in project management in the
1960s was also reflected in the formation of Europe’s
International Project Management Association (IPMA),
formally known as internet, which was conceived in
1965, and of North America’s Project Management
Institutes (PMI) in 1969.
The necessity for project
management
• The purpose of project management is to foresee or
predict as many of dangers and problems in the
projects as possible and to plan, organise and control
activities
• This is to ensure that the project is completed
successfully, in spite if all the difficulties and risks
• This process starts before the resources are committed,
and must continue until the work is finished
• The aim of the results is to satisfy the performance and
quality requirements of the project sponsor or purchaser
(Client), within an agreed time scale and without using
more money and other resources than those that were
originally set aside or budgeted
• Projects and projects management are required
because we cannot produce, or achieve benefits, by
doing routine things and become the expected benefits
from doing the project outweigh the risks
• Project management is the means which projects are
managed and change is achieved
• Project management is required to manage work
activities in order to move from a specific or current
situation to a desired situation
• This changes requires a specific and specialised form of
management
• If you manage a project, you have one of two
fundamental options
– You can manage the project efficiently and effectively.
– Or, you can manage the project in a way that results in high
turnover, low morale, poor productivity and ineffectiveness
• Project management assists you to achieve the former
• Project management provides you with the
tools and techniques for:
– Leading,
– Defining,
– Planning,
– Organising,
– Closing and
– Controlling
a project both effectively (client satisfaction)
and efficiently (resource utilisation)
The project management context
• Project management is both science and art
• It is perceived as science because it is supported
by charts, graphs, mathematical calculations and
other technical tools
• Project management is also driven by political,
interpretational and organisational factors – art of
project management
• Communication, negotiation and conflict resolution
are only some of the soft skills used in this art
• What is a project?
• It is a human endeavour that creates change, is
limited in time and scope, has mixed goals and
objectives, involves a variety of resources, and
is unique
• Project management allows thorough planning to
take place in the development of a particular
community, thus result in a very successful
implementation of projects
– Project management defined
• It entails planning, organising, co-ordinating,
controlling and directing activities of a projects
• It is characterised by the application or
implementation of actions and implies that
management techniques are adopted to exercise
more effective control over existing resources
• It can also be regarded as a planning and control
mechanism for using resources to achieve specific
objective
• A project can be defined as an unrepeated
activity and it has the following characteristics:
– Objective orientated
– It has certain restrictions, e.g. limited resources
– The result is quantifiable
– It bring about change
• Therefore, project management is a set of
principles, methods, tools, and techniques for
the effective management of objective-oriented
work in the context of specific and unique
environment
What is project management?
• No project will be perfect.
• Problems will beset the best-led, best-defined, best-
planned, best-organised and best-controlled project
• The key, however, is to anticipate those problems
• The best approach is to determine in advance the who,
what, when, where and how
• This is called defined and planning
• It also entails orchestrating your resources with those
plans (its called organising) it involves assessing how
well you use your plans and organisation to meet project
goals and objectives (called controlling and closing)
• Embracing the project means motivating people to excel
(called leadership)
• Leading, defining, planning, organising, controlling
and closing are some of the basic function of project
management.
• Project management is a set of principles,
methods, tools and techniques for the effective
management of objective-oriented work in the
context of a specific and unique organisational
environment
• Your own definition of project management should
include these aspects:
– A set of principles, tools, techniques and methods
– Effective management, including planning, organising,
leading and controlling
– Objective-oriented work
– A unique and specific environment
– The application of knowledge and skills
– Meetings stakeholder requirement
– Motivating staff
• Project has certain advantages, some of which are:
– Controlling over the whole project, which leads to productivity
– Shorter completion
– Cost control
– Quality of the product
– Transparency because the whole institution or community
(depending on the client) is involved
• Eight main fields of study in project management, which
are currently included in MBA courses in particular, can be
identified:
• Time management: the purposeful management is time to
keep within the period in which a project or product must be
completed
• Cost management: the effective supervision of cost to
produce the highest profit
• Scope management: the total control and management of a
project or institution, always bearing in mind the target and
goal
• Quality management: the guarantees
• Human resources management: the management and
control of the labour force to achieve the best possible
impact, cost, time and quality management
• Communication management: to ensure that information
flows continuously, and that it is interpreted and processed
correctly to achieve the goal, complete the project and
produce the product that will meet the client’s needs
• Procurement management: the process in which resources
such as people, equipment and raw material are obtained
in the most cost-effective way for completing the product or
project
• Risk management: how the institution’s exposure to
negative influenced on its resources is limited
• The above fields of study indicate the multidimensionality of
project management
• However, the project management body of knowledge
(PMBOK) adds another field to these eight listed above,
namely:
• Integration management: the process followed to co-
ordinate the various aspects of a project plan
Project phases
• Because projects are unique undertakings, they
involve a degree of uncertainty
• Project phases
• Feasibility: project formulation, feasibility
studies, strategy designed and approval
• Planning ad design: base design, cost and
schedule, contracts terms and conditions, and
detailed planning
• Production: manufacturing, delivery, civil
works, installation and testing
• Turnover and start-up: final and maintenance
–Project development cycle
• Project moves through three main phases
• Each phase consists of specific actions
– Preparation phase
– Implementation phase
– Evaluation phase
– Practical steps in project management
– Identify the need
• There are several ways to find the needs of the
community
• It can be through questionnaire or discussion or debates
• Prioritisation of identified need is of paramount importance
– Choose the project team and appoints
project manager
• The members of the project team should knowledgeable in
particular fields
• This is because the project has many aspect
• E.g. financial management for budgeting
• They should be motivated
– Define a project
• The project needs to be defined so that all the
members of the team know exactly what they
expected to do
• Documentation should be done to highlight all the
needs, where is should be implemented,
beneficiaries
– Plan the project
• No project is too large if it is defined properly and
divided into logical and progressive step
• Schedule is important in the project
• Starting date and completion date
• Logical activities should be linked with a person
responsible
• One techniques to be used is Work Breakdown
Structure (WBS)
– Implement the project
• Implementation is a process in which all planned
actions are executed
• Plan of action are put to operation
– Evaluate the project
• Results must be quantifiable (measureable)
Environmental Planning
• Environmental planning is a common place for
academics, journalists, politicians and others to
refer to the planners, in a general and
undifferentiated way, meaning that group of
expect advisers who appear to have
responsibility for the environment
• Our purpose of examining the notion of
environmental planning is, therefore, to
consider the various interpretation of the
concepts and, by implication, also to review
the role and status of this group widely
designated as the planners
• The terms environmental planning may be broadly
understood to refer to the group of formulating,
evaluating and implementing environmental
policy
• However, this simple definition serves to conceal a
variety of interpretation of environmental planning
which may be variously conceived as the
technocratic, professional and political views of
the process
• Technocratic interpretation of environmental
planning refer to an understanding of the process
which gives precedence to the scientific knowledge
deemed necessary to understand and thus
manipulate natural, biophysical and ecological
system
• The approach does not deny the importance of
the socio-economic environment within which
these process might be managed or planned,
but it does tend to emphasis the importance of
technical approaches and solutions
• Selman’s (1992) book on environmental
planning exhibits many of these features.
• As might be expected, this approach places
greater emphasis upon rural and natural
environments than upon urban, built
environments
• Professional interpretations encapsulates a
rather different approach to environmental
planning
• Here we are referring to the responses of
established professional groupings to the
rapidly expanding environmental agenda
and the associated sources of employment
and prestige
• In particular, the Royal Town Planning Institute,
representing the interests of land use planners,
has historically claimed a particularly wide
environmental remit, often extending well
beyond the regulation of land use and the
control of development
• Although some other professions, for example
environmental health officers, are currently
seeking to be known as the pre-eminent
environmental profession, it is the town
planning profession which has been effective in
this respect in its search to move from town
planning as its cognitive base to a more
ambitious notion of environmental planning
incorporating a much wider policy remit
• The final view of environmental planning is the
political interpretation
• Here a long-term objective of sustainability is
linked to a policy process of environmental
planning
• The clearest expression of this position is that
articulated by the Town and Country Planning
Association (TCPA) (Blowers, 1993), who argue
that the only way of dealing with the complexity of
environmental questions is to adopt an integrative,
holistic policy approach which transcends
established developmental professional
boundaries
• This interpretation of environmental planning sees
it as a set of arrangements for formulating,
organising and delivering policy with the
objective of securing environment sustainability
• The TCPA’s call for environment planning is one that
places questions of land use within a wider context,
incorporating a whole range of environmental policy
including pollution control and reuse energy
management, transportation planning, water
resources management and so on.
• The TCPA is involved in a political, campaigning agenda
which seeks to convince government and opinion
formers of the necessity to create a system of
environmental planning linked to some vision of
sustainability
• However, from this context, the third interpretation of
environmental planning, as a policy process linked to
sustainability, is the most useful perspective
• Not only does it recognise the importance of creating
policy and decision-making approaches which reflect the
complexity of environmental questions, but it also
implicitly emphasises the political and conflictual nature
of the drive of sustainability
Environmental sustainability and
democracy
• It has been argued that environmental sustainability
cannot be accepted uncontested
• If sustainability is to be a robust and workable goal, it
must be subject to debate
• We would maintain that this is but the first step in the
process of inclusion through which groups and
individuals will come to own and take responsibility for
planning for environmental sustainability
• The rhetoric surrounding these concepts embraces not
only environmental goal, but also social goals such as
greater equality, citizen empowerment and active public
participation in environmental decision-making which
both the United Nations and the European
Commission’s fifth Environmental Programme regards
as integral to environmental planning
• As public participation in land use planning has
consistently demonstrated, making provision for
participation is not sufficient to ensure that it will
take place in a fair and even manner and
examples of selective representation abound
• The justification for greater public participation
is twofolds:
– Social justice on the other hand and
– Functional legitimation on the other
• If people feel that they own the decisions made,
then they are more likely to want to comply with
them
• The increasing centralisation and
bureaucratisation of power not only erodes the
capacity of local government to act
independently, but this erosion of local
autonomy also results in an increasing
disinclination of people to support
traditional political groups which, they feel,
are unable to influence centralised authority
• It is argued that this has led to a rise in the
grass roots groups which have a tendency to be
both more heterogeneous and more
decentralised than political parties
• However, this very heterogeneity and
decentralisation, together with their relatively
unstable organisation, makes these groups
vulnerable to being picked off by governments
or having one group’s interests played off
against another’s
• Ultimately, opposition, or campaigning, of this
sort is quite fragile and arguably could lead to a
less democratic form of representation
• Awareness of this is critical, since Agenda 21
advocates a form of participation that is not
necessarily channelled through local
government or presided over by it exclusively
• The Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development embodies elements of this in its
principles:
– The eradication of poverty;
– The participation of all concerned citizens in the
setting of the environmental agenda whilst ensuring a
right of access to information, education, redress and
remedy;
– And the full participation of women, youth and
indigenous people and their community and local
communities
• The mechanisms for achieving effective
participation, however, remain resolutely under-
explicit and it is our contention that conventional
ways for formulating policy will be insufficient to the
TASK of achieving environmental sustainability
• These conventions (such as top-down planning
and methods of participation that is reactive
and constrained by the existing decision-
making process) need to be challenged at a
number of levels
• The principle of subsidiaries embodied in UN and
EU legislation requires that environmental
decision-making needs to be devolved and makes
specific reference to the involvement of individual
and groups hitherto neglected in the environment
decision-making process
• The contemporary ways of soliciting public
participation have repeated failed to involve the
groups included in the above principles,
consequently, it is likely that this form of public
participation will need to recast if it is to involve a
wider range of people
The challenge of environment
change
• Notions of sustainable development draw on critiques of
the development process, for example:
– For a populist writings (including the failure of distribution
and plight of the poorest)
– From radical ideas (such as dependency theory)
– And from a pragmatic critiques of development project
appraisal and implementation
• However, in sustainable development, these have been
wedded to rather different concerns about the
environmental impact of development, both the cost in
terms of lost ecosystem and species and (latterly) the
impacts development of action on natural resources for
human use
• Above all, environmentalist critiques of development
have presented a picture of the Third World
environmental crisis
• From 1972 the UN Environment Programme
(UNEP) published annual state-of-the-
environment reports on particular issues,
carried out a review of world environmental
trends ranging from atmospheric carbon dioxide
and desertification to the quality of drinking
water
• Many accounts of the state of the world’s
environment have been completed since, all of
them relentlessly negative in their account of
rapid declines in forest cover, rapidly rising level
of energy use and carbon dioxide production,
overexploitation of fisheries, depletion of soil
resources and shortage of food not met by
international trade and aid flows
• Debates about global environmental crisis have
often descended into slanging matches between
environmentalist Casandras crying disaster and
conservative sceptics claiming that they
exaggerate
• The fundamental dynamic of environmentalist
concern about development in its broad sense –
the expansion of industrial capacity, and the
urbanisation and sociocultural changes that
accompany it – is the scale of human demand on
the biosphere
• Vitousek et al. (1986) calculated the 40% of
potential terrestrial net production was used
directly by human activities, co-opted or foregone
as a result of those activities
• This consumption embraces food and other
products both directly consumed (for example,
crops, fish, wood) and consumed by livestock,
as well as production consumed less directly
(for example, in fires or human induced soil
erosion)
• Since the 1990s, the issue of climate change
has come to dominate environmentalist
discourse about human impacts on the
biosphere
Environment and development
• The threat of multidimensional global crisis has,
therefore, been a key theme within debates about
sustainability: a crisis of development, of
environmental quality and threats to the material
benefits supported by natural biogeochemical
processes and sinks
• The 1992 World Development Report opened with
the assertion that the achievement of sustained
and equitable development remains the greatest
challenge facing the human race
• By the 1990s, the points that there are close links
between the problem of development and
environment had sunk in, although, despite
significant advances
• It is recognised that tight link and complex link
exist between development, environment and
poverty
• The poor often endure degraded environments,
and in some instances contribute to their further
degradation
• The notion that poverty and environment are linked
was fundamental to the work of the Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, and to the work of
initiatives such as the Equator Initiative
• However, in the three decades of sustainable
development that followed publication of the
Brundtland Report in 1987, the fields of
developmental and environmental studies have far
from unified
• The one language of sustainability has hidden
the separation of two cultures, which have often
remained remote from each other both
conceptually and practically
• Despite the rise of careers in environment and
development, and of massive sources of
funding such as the global Environmental
Facility that fuel them, debates about the
politics and economic and sociology of
development and the science of environmental
change have remained separate fields
• Development and environment are still the fruits
of distinct culture
• The need of effective interdisciplinarity to make
sense of the problem of environment and
development is blindingly obvious
• As Piers Bliekie (1995) environmental issues
are by definition also social ones, and therefore
our understanding must rest on a broader
interdisciplinary perspective that transcends
institutional and professional barriers
• In practice, however, both academics and
practitioners are reluctant to cross disciplinary
boundaries
• Our individual disciplinary bias is deeply coded
by our training, and is a severe constraint on
innovative thinking
• This problem is not confined to the developing
world
• Thus it is recognised that research on global
environmental change must be pursued through
collaboration between the natural and social
sciences; however, such work is by no mean
easy to achieve successfully
• Development crisis and environmental crisis
exist side by side in the literature, and together
on the ground, yet explanations often fail to
intersect
• Environmentalist and social scientists speak
different languages
Environmentalism and the emergence
of sustainable development (SD)
• The phrase SD has become the focus of debate about
environment and development
• The concept of SD cannot be understood in a historical
vacuum
• It has many antecedents, and over time has taken on
board many accretions and influences
• The history of thinking about SD is closely linked to the
history of environmental concern and of the conservation
of nature in Western Europe and North America
• An understanding of the evolution of SD thinking must
embrace the way essentially metropolitan ideas about
nature and its conservation were expressed on the
periphery in the twentieth century, initially on the colonial
periphery and latterly within the countries of the
independent developing world
• This focuses attention in particular on the rise of
international environmentalism in the second half
of the twentieth century
• History of ecological science, The Back-ground of
Ecology, stories of the development of ideas
divorced from social and intellectual context are of
little value
• It is unhelpful to look for clear and simple roots to
idea that in fact relate to each other through time
in a complex and fluid way, that at any given time
are held and articulated in diverse ways by
different people
• An account of the evolution of different strands of
thought about what we call SD is therefore not
entirely straightforward
• As Guha (2000) point out, many
environmental thinkers defy attempts to
pigeonhole them in particular debates
• However, if the nature of the thinking
about SD that emerged in the 1960s is to
be understood, it is necessary to tease out
some of the strands in the complex fabric
of its past
Global environmentalism
• The attempt to write the history of SD is made
difficult by abundance of, and the Eurocentric and
Americocentric focus of, the literature on
environmentalism
• Accounts of the global environmental movement
have tended to portray its history as an almost
exclusively northern-hermisphere phenomenon
• This ethnocentrism should make us wary of
international comparisons that are in fact based on
European and American experience
• Southern environmental NGOs began to appear
from the 1970s onwards, and their number and
capacity have grown rapidly
• However, the size and influence of environmental
NGOs based in industrialised countries are such
that they remain the dominant force internationally
• The effectiveness of developing world grass-roots
organisations is often precisely in their ability to
transcend locality and connect to international
arenas, and this is often done through better
connected metropolitan partners
• Twentieth-century environmentalism, with its rather
belated concern for the unindustrialised, tropical
and colonial parts of the worlds, therefore, has
immediate precursors in the industrialising world in
the nineteenth century
• Global environmental concern was neither simply a
local response to the conditions western
industrialisation, nor something derived exclusively
from northern attitudes
• The development of science, and the
Enlightenment separation of natural and human
that lay behind it, went hand in hand with the
growing power of European imperialism from
the sixteenth century onwards, a process of
tightening government of nature
• In the mid-seventeenth century, it has began to
be realised that human activities on tropical and
subtropical islands such as the Canary Islands,
Madeira or Mauritius threatened to destroy both
their natural beauty and their bounty as a
source of food and timber for passing ships
trading across far-flung European empires
• In due course this led to an awareness of
environmental limits and the need for conservation,
as experience of ecological change on island was
translated into a more general awareness of the
possibility of environmental destruction on a global
scale
• Scientists employed by imperial trading companies
as surgeons and botanists developed and
disseminated ideas about desiccation, drought and
famine, environmental limits to human action
• Ideas of environmental crisis, limits and
management, developed in the colonial periphery,
where full-throated capitalist and imperialist
expansion met for twentieth-century
environmentalist concern, an important source of
ideas about sustainable development

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Facilitators: Mr.

NJ Mokoele and Mr MG Makgamatha

Structuralism- state is in control

People centred / alternative

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• After the apartheid regime and ANC came to

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Facilitators by: Mr NJ Mokoele, Ms L Mmotlana and Mr KI Makalela

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