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Using chemistry
People have been using natural materials to make new
substances for thousands of years.

The first substances to have been synthesized included:

 Iron, from heating rocks

containing iron ores with
charcoal.
 Cosmetics, from crushed plants
and beetles.
 Copper, which was used to
make bronze.
 Soap, made from ashes and fat.

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Jobs in the chemical industry

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The chemical industry
The chemical industry is one of the biggest in the world.

In the UK alone, the industry has an annual turnover of more

than £50 billion and employs 214,000 people.

What different sectors is

the chemical industry
composed of?

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Developing a new chemical

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The story of artificial sweeteners
Some new chemicals are discovered by chance, and others
by taking risks that would not normally be allowed in a lab.

In the past, artificial sweeteners caused problems for the

chemists researching them, because the only way to report
on the sweetness and smell was to taste them!

Today chemicals
are thoroughly
tested for toxicity
before anyone
is allowed to
taste them.

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Artificial sweeteners – saccharin
Saccharin is an artificial sweetener, named after the Greek
word for sugar, and is 300 times sweeter than sucrose.
Saccharin was discovered in 1897 by Ira Remsen and
Constantine Fahlberg, chemists at Johns Hopkins University
in the USA.
One evening Remsen noticed that the
bread he was eating tasted unusually
sweet. He guessed that a chemical
must have contaminated his fingers.
The next morning, he went back to
the lab and tasted all the substances
he had been working with, until he
found the sweetest one!

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Artificial sweeteners – cyclamate
Another artificial sweetener, cyclamate, was also
discovered by chance, and through an activity that is
definitely banned in all labs today – smoking!

In 1937, Michael Sveda was working in the lab, developing

anti-fever medication. He put his cigarette down on the bench
for a moment, and when he put it back in his mouth, he
noticed that it tasted sweet.

Cyclamate is only
around 40 times
sweeter than sucrose,
so is more rarely used
in commercial products.

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Artificial sweeteners – aspartame
In 1965, a chemist named James Schlatter, working for
G.D. Searle & Company in the US, discovered aspartame.
The discovery was accidental,
because at the time Schlatter
had been developing drugs to
treat ulcers.
He only realised that he had
created a sweetener when he
happened to lick his fingers,
which had become contaminated.
Because aspartame is 180 times sweeter than sucrose, but
does not have its high energy levels, it is commonly used in
diet fizzy drinks.

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Regulating the chemical industry
Prior to the late 1970s, waste
liquids and gases from factories
were often allowed to escape,
damaging the surrounding
environment.

Today, in the UK the government

is responsible for regulating the
safe storage, transportation and
disposal of chemicals and waste.

The result is an improvement in

safety, and routine purification and
recycling of hazardous waste.

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Hazardous substances
By controlling and improving the way hazardous waste is
managed, the government can reduce the risks they pose,
both now and in the future.
What kinds of hazardous substances does the industry use?

 chemicals
 metals
 plastics
 oils
 solvents
 pigments

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Storing hazardous substances
Regulations covering the storage of hazardous substances
vary between countries, but generally state that:

 Storage areas should be

fenced, locked and contain
fire protection facilities.
Leak detection, and warning
devices should also be
installed.
 An adequate stock of
neutralizing agents,
chemical adsorbents, and
protective gear, etc. should
be kept on standby.

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Transporting hazardous substances
As with storing materials, controls and guidelines for the
transportation of hazardous substances by road and rail vary,
but generally state that:
 Containers, tankers and vehicles
must be properly labelled and carry
appropriate hazard warning panels.
 Transportation may be limited to
approved routes, and only take place
at specific times of the day or night.
 Drivers should be trained in the
handling of accidental spills, and
stocks of emergency equipment
should be kept onboard.

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Environmental controls
In what way is the chemical
industry regulated, or made safer?
 Chimneys trap waste gases.
 Products are tested for purity.
 Hazard symbols are displayed.
 pH and temperature of waste
water is monitored.
 Workers wear protective clothing
(safety glasses, masks etc.)
 Temperatures are kept low to
prevent reactions overheating.

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Green chemistry
Today, many companies aim to reduce and prevent pollution
at its source using more sustainable (‘green’) chemistry.
How is this achieved?
 Using renewable and non-
toxic raw materials.
 Maximizing atom economy
and yield.
 Producing non-toxic products.
 Reducing energy use.
 Reducing water use.
 Minimizing waste.

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Green chemistry

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Atom economy and percentage yield
Atom economy is the amount of starting material that ends
up as useful product. A high atom economy means that all
the starting materials end up as useful products, and no
atoms are wasted.
For example, the reaction of ethene with water to make
ethanol has excellent atom economy as all of the reactants
end up as useful product – there are no waste products.
C2H4 + H2 O  CH3CH2OH

Making ethanol by fermentation of glucose however, has a

lower atom economy, as some of the reactants are
converted to the waste product, CO2.
C6H12O6  2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2

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Percentage yield
The percentage yield of a chemical reaction shows how
much product was actually made, as a percentage of the
amount of product that could possibly be made.
A high percentage yield means that little raw material is left
unreacted at the end.
For example, the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide
during the contact process has a yield of around 97%. Some
of the sulfur dioxide and oxygen remain at the end.
2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3
Atom economy and percentage yield are ways of measuring
the efficiency of chemical reactions. Why is it important for the
chemical industry to use reactions with high atom economies
and percentage yields?

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Calculating percentage yield

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Atom economy – true or false?

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Catalysts
One way of reducing the energy used in a chemical reaction
is to use a catalyst.
Catalysts allow reactions to take place at a faster rate, and
often at a lower temperature too.
Common catalysts include:
 platinum (catalytic converters)
 vanadium oxide (sulfuric acid
production)
 dilute hydrochloric acid
(perfume production)
 iron (Haber process).

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How do catalysts work?
Catalysts work by lowering the activation energy of a
reaction. This is the minimum amount of energy needed
for particles to react.

Lowering the activation energy means that more

particles can react at any given temperature.
This speeds up the reaction, and reduces the need
for high temperatures in the production process.

Only small amounts of a catalyst are needed

because they are continually recycled in the
reaction. The catalyst can also be recovered
and reused at the end.

Why is this useful from an environmental viewpoint?

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How do catalysts work?

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Catalysts – true or false

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Making medicines
Pharmaceuticals are the biggest sector of the chemical
industry. New medicines are constantly being developed
for the treatments of hundreds of diseases, including:
 Cancer – treatments such as
herceptin for breast cancer.
 Bacterial infections – treatments like
ear drops medicated with antibiotics.
 Painkillers, etc. – over-the-counter
remedies like ibuprofen and
indigestion tablets.
 Vaccines – such as the vaccine
against cervical cancer

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Definitions

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Analgesics (painkillers)
Analgesics are medicines that reduce
pain. Three common analgesics are:
 aspirin
 paracetamol
 ibuprofen.
These common analgesics are all
readily available ‘over-the-counter’,
i.e. without a doctor’s prescription.
Pharmaceutical companies
are always keen to develop
over-the-counter remedies.
Why do you think this is?

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Comparing analgesics

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Structure of analgesics
The configuration of groups
around the benzene ring in aspirin
(1,2) is different from that in
paracetamol and ibuprofen (1,4).

However, all three painkillers

seem to have a similar mode
of action.

The drugs are thought to block

the formation of prostaglandins
(hormone-like substances)
which are the cause of pain
and inflammation.

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The discovery of aspirin

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The development of paracetamol
Paracetamol was first synthesized in the 1890s, and was
found to be an excellent analgesic.

Soon after, the drug was mistakenly thought to deactivate the

action of haemoglobin (which allows oxygen to be carried in
the blood), and as a result was largely ignored until the 1940s.

In more recent times paracetamol

has been re-established as a
useful and effective painkiller.

It is suitable and safe for

children and people with ulcers,
who cannot take aspirin.

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The development of ibuprofen
In the 1960s ibuprofen was developed in the research
labs of the Boots company as an alternative to
paracetamol and aspirin.

Ibuprofen was developed by taking the basic structure of

paracetamol and testing a variety of substitute molecules
on the benzene ring.

The isobutyl group

was found to be the
most effective, hence
the name ibuprofen.

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Summary: analgesics

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Drug development

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The cost of drugs
In recent years the price that manufacturers charge for drugs
has caused much controversy.

Non-governmental Pharmaceutical company

organization worker: worker:
“Pharmaceutical “The prices that we charge are
companies charge high already lower than in the USA
prices to profit from the and Europe, and we have to
demand for life-saving cover the costs of developing
drugs”. new drugs”.

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Drug pricing: voting

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Glossary

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Anagrams

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Multiple-choice quiz

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