HUMAN & SOCIAL

BIOLOGY
4TH FORM
HOUSEKEEPING

 HAPPY NEW YEAR! WELCOME BACK TO THE HUMAN & SOCIAL BIOLOGY
COURSE.

 Is there any topic(s) that remained unclear to YOU from last year?

 All assignment and Home work should be done on folder paper.

Food Chain
Food Web
Food Chain vs Food Web

 In an ecosystem, a food chain is a single feeding pyramid describing how

each successive feeder obtains food while at the same time taking in
consideration the total energy obtained.

 A food web is a series of interconnected food chains that shows an array

of feeding relationships at each level.
Plants as Primary Producers

 A plant is a primary producer or sometimes referred to as AUTOTROPHS.

Plants manufacture glucose and oxygen by using energy from sunlight
and raw materials such as carbon dioxide and water in a process called
photosynthesis.

 Water + Carbon dioxide ------ Glucose + Oxygen

 How do human beings benefit from photosynthesis?

Energy Loss at each feeding level

 The energy is passed on from feeding level (trophic level) and each time
about 90% of the energy is lost. Energy is loss due to:
1. Respiration
2. Digestion
 Primary consumers get about 10% of the energy produced by autotrophs,
while secondary consumers get 1% and tertiary consumers get 0.1%. This
means the top consumer of a food chain receives the least energy, as a
lot of the food chain's energy has been lost between trophic levels.
The Digestive System

 There are two types of Digestion:

 Mechanical: This involves chewing food in the mouth with the aid of saliva
for full mastification of food and the action of salivary amylase enzyme to
break down carbohydrates.

 Chemical Digestion: This involves the breakdown of food by digestive

enzymes, digestive juices and bile salts to break down fats, proteins and
carbohydrates
Structure of the Teeth
The Teeth and Mechanical Digestion

 The Adult teeth dental formula:

 I 2/2, C 1/1 P 3/3 M 2/2

 Incisors
 Canines
 Pre Molars
 Molar
The Functions of each teeth

 Incisors- This is used to cut food in bits of pieces

 Canine- This used to rip and tear food
 Molars and Pre Molars are used to crush food

 All these actions allow the food to be rolled in a bolus before entering
down the oesophagus.
The Digestive System
Assessing the Macro-Nutrients

 Carbohydrates or Starch
 Protein
 Fats

 And our trace nutrients??

 Vitamins and Minerals
 What are Enzymes?

 Enzymes are special types of proteins that alter or change a substance

whilst speeding up a chemical reaction.
How is Carbohydrates broken down?

 Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth. The salivary glands in the

mouth secrete saliva, which helps to moisten the food. The food is then
chewed while the salivary glands also release the enzyme salivary
amylase, which begins the process of breaking down the polysaccharides
in the carbohydrate food.
Carbohydrate Digestion
Stomach
 Food is swallowed and passed through the oesophagus. The mixture enters
the stomach where it is known as chyme. There is no further digestion of
chyme, as the stomach produces acid which destroys bacteria in the food
and stops the action of the salivary amylase.
Pancreas and Small Intestine
 The chyme enters the beginning portion of the small intestine, or the
duodenum. In response to chyme being in the duodenum, the pancreas
releases the enzyme pancreatic amylase, which breaks the
polysaccharide down into a disaccharide, a chain of only two sugars
linked together. The small intestine then produces enzymes called lactase,
sucrase and maltase, which break down the disaccharides into
monosaccharides. The monosaccharides are single sugars that are then
absorbed in the small intestine.
How is Protein broken down?

Protein Digestion
In the Stomach
 Protein digestion begins in the stomach with the action of an enzyme that
is called pepsin. Pepsin is the active protein-digesting enzyme of the
stomach. When pepsin acts on the protein molecule, it breaks the bonds
that hold the protein molecule together, called peptide bonds. So, you
can think of pepsin as the enzyme that breaks peptide bonds. When these
bonds are broken, you get chains of amino acids linked together
called polypeptides. Since we know that the prefix 'poly' means 'many,' we
can easily recall that a polypeptide is many amino acid units joined
together. These polypeptides then move into your small intestine, where
digestion will be completed by additional enzymes.
Protein Digestion

 In the Small Intestine

 In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes that is called trypsin, go to work
breaking down the polypeptides. These enzymes enter the duodenum via
the pancreatic duct.
 The peptide bonds holding the polypeptides together is then broken down
by the enzyme peptidases and result in smaller units called peptides.
Peptides are simply defined as two or more amino acids linked together.
Enzymes continue to break down polypeptides and peptides into amino
acids. Because amino acids are very small, they can be absorbed through
the small intestine lining that is called a VILLI and then enter the blood
stream.
Digestion of Fats?

Digestion of Fats
This Occurs in the Small Intestine
 The key issue in the digestion and absorption of fats is one of solubility:
lipids are hydrophobic (not attracted to water), and thus are poorly
soluble in the aqueous environment of the digestive tract. The digestive
enzyme, lipase, is water soluble and can only work at the surface of fat
globules. Digestion is greatly aided by emulsification, the breaking up of
fat globules into much smaller emulsion droplets. This emulsification is
brought about by Bile salts that is secreted from the gall bladder. As fats
are broken down in the small intestine, that are absorbed in the lacteal
structure that is in the middle of the villi structure
Absorption of at the Villi (Small
Intestine)
Absorption of Nutrients at the Villi

 The lacteal: This is located in the middle of the villi and is generally
surrounded by blood vessels. The lacteal functions as to absorb fatty acids
and glycerol.

 The highly tangled or network of blood vessels function as to absorb amino

acids and glucose.
But… Where does these nutrient go?

 Now, there is a vessel that runs from the small intestine that is called the
HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN which allows the nutrients to be traversed in the blood to
the liver for processing.

 At the liver, detoxification occurs:

 1. Deamination: This involves the breaking down and of nitrogenous waste from
the food.

 Storage
 Glucose is stored as glycogen and fats are stored as fatty acids and glycerol.
Any Questions?

 Let us discuss what you have just learnt