Manufacturing Engineering Technology in SI Units, 6th Edition

Chapter 27:
Advanced Machining Processes

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Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Chemical Machining
3. Electrochemical Machining
4. Electrochemical Grinding
5. Electrical-discharge Machining
6. Laser-beam Machining
7. Electron-beam Machining
8. Water-jet Machining
9. Abrasive-jet Machining
10. Hybrid Machining Systems
11. Economics of Advanced Machining Processes

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Introduction
 Machining processes involved material removal by
mechanical means: chip formation, abrasion, or
microchipping
 Situations where mechanical methods are not
satisfactory, economical or possible:
 Very high strength and hardness
 Material is too brittle
 Workpiece is too flexible
 Shape of the part is complex
 Surface finish and dimensional
tolerance requirements
 Temperature rise during processing
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Introduction

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Chemical Machining
 Chemical machining (CM) is the process where
chemicals attacking and etching metals, stones, and
some ceramics, and remove small amounts of material
from the surface
 Carried out by chemical dissolution using reagents or
etchants

Chemical Milling
 Shallow cavities are produced on plates, sheets,
forgings and extrusions
 Overall reduction of weight

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Chemical Machining
Chemical Milling

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Chemical Machining
Chemical Milling
 Used in aerospace industry to remove shallow layers of
material from large aircraft components, missile skin
panels and extruded parts for airframes

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Chemical Machining
Chemical Blanking
 Similar to the blanking of sheet metals
 Used to produce features which penetrate through the
thickness of the material
 Applications are the burr-free etching of printed-circuit
boards and decorative panels

Photochemical Blanking
 Material is removed by photographic techniques
 Also called photochemical machining
 Used for etching
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Chemical Machining
Design Considerations for Chemical Machining
 Design guidelines for chemical machining are:
1. Sharp corners, deep and narrow cavities, severe
tapers, folded seams, or porous workpiece materials
should be avoided
2. 10% tolerance thickness should maintained
3. Bulk of the workpiece should be shaped by other
processes prior to chemical machining
4. Controlling work environment and artwork
5. Protocol should be compatible with the equipment

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Electrochemical Machining
 The reverse of electroplating
 An electrolyte acts as current carrier and the high rate
of electrolyte movement in the tool washes metal ions
away from the workpiece (anode) before they have a
chance to plate onto the tool (cathode)
 The material-removal rate (MRR) in electrochemical
machining is

MMR  CI

I = current in amperes
C = material constant

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Electrochemical Machining
Process Capabilities
 Used to machine complex cavities and shapes in high-
strength materials
 Aerospace industry for the mass production of turbine
blades, jet-engine parts and nozzles
 Modification of ECM, shaped-tube electrolytic
machining (STEM), is used for drilling small-diameter
deep holes
 ECM process leaves a burr-free, bright surface and can
be used as a deburring process
 Available as numerically controlled machining centers
with high production rates, high flexibility, and close
dimensional tolerances
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Electrochemical Machining
Process Capabilities

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Electrochemical Machining
CASE STUDY 27.1
Electrochemical Machining of a Biomedical Implant
a) 2 total knee-replacement systems, showing metal
implants (top pieces) with an ultrahigh-molecular-
weight polyethylene insert (bottom pieces)
b) Cross section of the ECM process as applied to the
metal implant

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Electrochemical Machining:
Pulsed Electrochemical Machining
 The process uses very high current densities but the
current is pulsed rather than direct current
 This is to eliminate the need for high electrolyte flow
rates
 PECM improves fatigue life and eliminate the recast
layer left on die and mold surfaces by electrical-
discharge machining

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Electrochemical Grinding

 The process combines electrochemical machining with

conventional grinding
 Similar to a conventional grinder but the wheel is a
rotating cathode embedded with abrasive particles

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Electrochemical Grinding

 The abrasives have 2 functions:

1. Serve as insulators between the wheel and the
workpiece
2. Mechanically remove electrolytic products from the
working area
 ECG process is suitable for applications similar to
those for milling, grinding and sawing but not cavity-
sinking operations

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Electrochemical Grinding

Design Considerations for Electrochemical Grinding

 ECG requires that:
1. Designs should avoid sharp inside radii
2. Electrochemically ground surface should be narrower
than the width of the grinding wheel

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Electrical-discharge Machining

 Process is based on the erosion of metals by spark

discharges
 When two current-conducting wires are allowed to
touch each other, an arc is produced
 At the point of contact between the two wires, a small
portion of the metal eroded away and leave a small
crater

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Electrical-discharge Machining

Principle of Operation
 EDM system consists of a electrode and the workpiece,
connected to a DC power supply and placed in a
dielectric fluid
 When the potential difference is high, the dielectric
breaks down and a transient spark discharges through
the fluid, removing a small amount of metal
 Can be used on any material that is an electrical
conductor
 The material-removal rate can be estimated from
MMR  4 104 ITw1.23 I = current in amperes
Tw = melting point
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Electrical-discharge Machining

Principle of Operation

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Electrical-discharge Machining

Dielectric Fluids
 The functions of the dielectric fluid are to:
1. Act as an insulator until the potential is sufficiently high
2. Provide a cooling medium
3. Act as a flushing medium and carry away the debris in
the gap

Electrodes
 Electrodes are made of graphite, brass, copper or
copper–tungsten alloys

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Electrical-discharge Machining

Electrodes
 Can be shaped by forming, casting, powder metallurgy,
or CNC machining techniques
 Wear ratio is defined as the ratio of the volume of
workpiece material removed to the volume of tool wear
 Tool wear is related to the melting points of the
materials involved
 Lower the melting point of the electrode, the higher is
the wear rate
 Tool wear can be minimized by reversing the polarity
and using copper tools

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Electrical-discharge Machining

Process Capabilities
 Stepped cavities can be produced by controlling the
relative movements of the workpiece in relation to the
electrode
 High rates of material removal produce rough surface
finish with poor surface integrity and low fatigue
properties

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Electrical-discharge Machining

Design Considerations for EDM

 General design guidelines:
1. Parts should be designed so that the required
electrodes can be shaped properly and economically
2. Deep slots and narrow openings should be avoided
3. The surface finish specified should not be too fine.
4. Bulk of material removal should be done by
conventional processes

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Electrical-discharge Machining:
Wire EDM
 Similar to contour cutting with a band saw
 A slowly moving wire travels along a prescribed path
will cut the workpiece
 Wire is made of brass, copper, tungsten, molybdenum,
zinc- or brass-coated or multicoated

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Electrical-discharge Machining:
Electrical-discharge Grinding
 The grinding wheel is made of graphite or brass and
contains no abrasives
 Material is removed from the workpiece surface by
spark discharges between the rotating wheel and the
workpiece
 EDG process can be combined with electrochemical
grinding called electrochemical-discharge grinding
(ECDG)
 Material-removal rate in EDG is
I = current
MMR  KI K = workpiece material factor

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Laser-beam Machining

 The source of energy is a laser which focuses optical

energy on the surface of the workpiece
 The highly focused, high-density energy source melts
and evaporates portions of the workpiece in a
controlled manner

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Laser-beam Machining

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Laser-beam Machining

 The cutting depth is expressed as

t = depth
CP C = constant for the process
t P = power input
vd v = cutting speed
d = laser-spot diameter

 Laser beams may be used in combination with a gas

stream to increase energy absorption (laser-beam
torch) for cutting sheet metals

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Laser-beam Machining

Process Capabilities
 It is used for drilling, trepanning, and cutting metals,
nonmetallic materials, ceramics, and composite
materials
 Laser-beam machining is being used increasingly in
the electronics and automotive industries
 Also used for welding, small-scale and localized heat
treating of metals and ceramics, and marking of parts

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Laser-beam Machining

Design Considerations for LBM

 General design guidelines:
1. Sharp corners should be avoided
2. Deep cuts will produce tapered walls
3. Reflectivity of the workpiece surface
4. Adverse effects on the properties of the machined
materials

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Laser-beam Machining

EXAMPLE 27.1
Combining Laser Cutting and Punching of Sheet Metal
 Advantages and drawbacks of punching:
1. Requires large lot sizes in order to economically justify
purchasing tooling
2. Relatively simple parts,
3. Small range of part thicknesses
4. Fixed and limited punch geometries
5. Rapid production
6. Integration with subsequent processing after punching

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Electron-beam Machining
 The energy source is high-velocity electrons, which
strike the workpiece surface and generate heat
 Used for very accurate cutting of a wide variety of
metals
 Surface finish is better and kerf width is narrower than
in other thermal cutting processes
 Should be used only by highly trained personnel

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Electron-beam Machining
Design Considerations for EBM
 Guidelines for EBM:
1. Individual parts or batches should closely match the
size of the vacuum chamber for a high production rate
per cycle
2. Manufacture in small batches

Plasma-arc Cutting
 Used to rapidly cut ferrous and nonferrous sheets and
plates
 Highly automated
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Water-jet Machining
 Force is utilized in cutting and deburring operations
 Advantages of this process:
1. Cuts can be started at any location
2. No heat is produced
3. No deflection of the workpiece
4. Little wetting of the workpiece takes place
5. The burr produced is minimal
6. Environmentally safe manufacturing process

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Water-jet Machining

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Abrasive-jet Machining
 A high-velocity jet of dry air, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide
containing abrasive particles is aimed at the workpiece
surface under controlled conditions

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Hybrid Machining Systems
 Able to handle a variety of materials, including metals,
ceramics, polymers, and composites
 Examples of integration of systems:
1. Abrasive machining and electrochemical machining
2. Abrasive machining and electrical discharge machining
3. Abrasive machining and electrochemical finishing
4. Water-jet cutting and wire EDM
5. Machining and blasting
6. Combinations of various forming, machining, and
joining processes

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Economics of Advanced Machining Processes

 Depends on the:
1. Costs of tooling and equipment
2. Cperating costs
3. Material-removal rate required
4. Level of operator skill required
 The cost of tooling and equipment and operator skill
required varies considerably

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Economics of Advanced Machining Processes

CASE STUDY 27.2

Manufacture of Small Satellites
 Propulsion system for a small satellite

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Economics of Advanced Machining Processes

CASE STUDY 27.2

Manufacture of Small Satellites
 Photochemically etched and blanked components for
micro- and nanosatellites

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Economics of Advanced Machining Processes

CASE STUDY 27.2

Manufacture of Small Satellites
 Processing sequence for photochemical etching of
microsatellite components

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