Definition of NDT

The use of noninvasive

techniques to determine
the integrity of a material,
component or structure
or
quantitatively measure
some characteristic of
an object.

i.e. Inspect or measure without doing harm.

 What are Some Uses
of NDE Methods?
• Flaw Detection and Evaluation
• Leak Detection
• Location Determination
• Dimensional Measurements Fluorescent penetrant indication
• Structure and Microstructure
Characterization
• Estimation of Mechanical and Physical
Properties
• Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response
When are NDE Methods
Used?
– To assist in product development
– To screen or sort incoming materials
– To monitor, improve or control manufacturing
processes
– To verify proper processing such as heat
treating
– To verify proper assembly
– To inspect for in-service damage
There are NDE application at almost any stage•
in the production or life cycle of a component.•
 Need for Inspection
• Engineers are well used to assessing the properties of
a material by means of standardized tests on
prepared test pieces.
• Much valuable information is obtained from tests
including data on the tensile, compressive, shear and
impact properties of the material, but such tests are of
a destructive nature.
• In addition, the material properties, as determined in a
standard test to destruction, do not necessarily give a
clear guide to the performance characteristics of a
complex- shaped component, which forms part of some
larger engineering assembly.
 Defects
• Defects of many types and sizes may be introduced
to a material or a component during manufacture and
the exact nature and size of any defects will influence
the subsequent performance of the component.
• Other defects, such as fatigue cracks or corrosion
cracks, may be generated within a material during
service.
• It is therefore necessary to have reliable means for
detecting the presence of defects at the
manufacturing stage and also for detecting and
monitoring the rate of growth of defects during the
service life of a component or assembly .
 non- destructive testing (NDT)
• A number of non-visual inspection
systems have been developed which will
provide information on the quality of a
material or component and which do not
alter or damage the components or
assemblies, which are tested.
• The basic principles and major features
o the main non- destructive testing (NDT)
systems are given in table.
Principal NDT Techniques
Type of test symbol
Visual inspection VT
Penetrant test PT
Magnetic particle MT
Radiographic RT
Ultrasonic UT
Leak LT
Hydrolic test HT
Eddy current ET
Acoustic Emission AT
 NDT used singly or in
conjunction with one another.
• All these NDT systems co- exist and depending on the
application, may be used either singly or in
conjunction with one another. There is some overlap
between the various test methods but they are
complementary to one another .
• There is some overlap between the various test
methods but they are complementary to one another.
• The fact that. For example, ultrasonic testing can reveal
both internal and surface flaws does not necessarily
mean that it will be the best method for all inspection
applications.
• Much will depend upon the type of flaw present and
the shape and size of the components to be examined.
 Types of Inspection System
• The various non- destructive test methods can be
used, in practice in many different ways and the
range of equipment available is extensive .
• A skilled operator could use such a unit to detect defects
of many types in a wide range of components and
materials.
• At the other end of the scale, a company could make a
major capital investment to obtain a purpose- designed
fully- automated system which can be incorporated
into a production line for the routine inspection of
large quantities of rolled metal bar stock .
 Types of Inspection System
• Compact and portable equipment is
available which can be used, both inside
a test house or out on site, or the basic
test principle can be incorporated in some
large inspection system dedicated to the
examination of large quantities of a single
product or a small range of products.
Benefits of Non- Destructive Test
Examination
• One obvious and clear benefit which can be derived from the judicious use
of non- destructive testing is the identification of defects which if they
remained undetected, could result in a catastrophic failure which would be
very costly in money and possibly in lives.
• However, the use of these test methods can bring benefits in many ways.
• The introduction of any inspection system incurs cost but very often the
effective use of suitable inspection techniques will give rise to very
considerable.
• Financial savings. Not only the type of inspection but also the stages at
which inspection is employed is important .
• It could be very wasteful to reserve the use of a non- destructive test
technique for the inspection of small castings or forgings until after all the
machining operations have been carried out on the parts.
• In this case, it would be preferable to examine the
product before costly machining is commenced and
those components with unacceptable flaws rejected .
Benefits of Non- Destructive Test
Examination
• It should be emphasized that not all flaws, which
may be located at this stage warrant rejection .
• Some surface discontinuities might be of such a size
that they would be removed at the machining stage.
• While effective quality control inspection can result
in financial savings and help to prevent catastrophic
failures in service .
• It is also true to say that the imposition or too many or
too sensitive inspection systems can be very wasteful
in terms of both time and money. Excessive
inspection may not result in an increase in product
performance or reliability .
• Absolute perfection in a product is impossible to
achieve and attempting to get very close to the ideal
can prove to be very expensive.
 NDT
Nondestructive
testing lefts the part
to be tested usable.
 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
• Also referred to as Non-Destructive
Evaluation (NDE)
• “NDT is a very broad, interdisciplinary
field that plays a critical role in
assuring that structural components
and systems perform their function in a
reliable and cost effective fashion.”
 Visual
Inspection
(VT)
Visual Inspection
(VT)
•It is a very cost effective quality control
tool.
•Visual inspection is the minimum level of
acceptance/rejection evaluation; it is
accomplished before, during and after the
production process.
 Objective of VT (welding
inspection)
• The objective of visual inspection at
this stage is not only to seek faults not
permissible under the quality standard,
but also to give clues to what may be
wrong in the entire fabrication process.

• If the inspector has a sound knowledge

of welding, he can read much from
what he sees.
Thus, the presence of excessive porosity and
slag inclusions may be an indication that the
current is not adequate, regardless of the
dial readings on the machine.
Subsequent tests will also give clues to faults
in equipment or procedures, but the
information acquired through visual
examination permits corrections to be made
before the results from complicated tests are
available. .
Palmgrin Guage
 Measurements
(Gage for Convex Fillets)
• Dimensional variations (using weld size
gauge, pocket rule, straight edge,
workmanship standards)
1. Legs measurements
2. Degree of convexity
3. Warpage, under welding, misalliments
• Under welding is a violation of specifications
and can not be tolerated, where overwelding is
coastally and serves no useful purpose.

•
 Measurements
(Gage for Convex Fillets)
 The Detection of Surface Faults
• It is often possible to detect and evaluate
surface faults by simple visual examination
with or without the use of a hand magnifier.
• The presence of fine hair-line cracks is less
easy to detect by visual means and some aid is
generally necessary.
• Such surface cracks may be associated with the
heat-treatment of steel or, in a welded joint,
with contraction during cooling.
Visual Inspection before welding
• Visual inspection reveals a defect soon after it
occurs to be corrected immediately.
• Before the first welding are is struck, materials
should be examined to see if they meet
specifications for quality, type size, cleanliness and
freedom from defects.
• Grease, paint, oil oxide film or heavy scale should be
removed.
• The pieces to be joined should be checked for
flatness, straightness and dimensional accuracy.
• Likewise, alignment, fit- up and joint preparation
should be examined.
 Visual Inspection after welding
• During fabrication, visual examination of a
weld bead and the end crater may reveal
problems such as cracks, inadequate
penetration, and gas or slag inclusions.
• Among the weld defects that can be
recognized visually are cracking, surface
slag inclusions, surface porosity and
undercut.
• On simple welds, inspecting at the beginning
of each operation and periodically as work
progresses may be adequate.
Visual Inspection
Most basic and common
inspection method.

Tools include
fiberscopes,
borescopes, magnifying
glasses and mirrors.

Portable video inspection

unit with zoom allows
inspection of large tanks
and vessels, railroad tank
cars, sewer lines.
Robotic crawlers permit
observation in hazardous or
tight areas, such as air
ducts, reactors, pipelines.
Visual Inspection
Most basic and common
inspection method.

Tools include
fiberscopes,
borescopes, magnifying
glasses and mirrors.
Visual Inspection

Robotic crawlers permit

observation in hazardous or
tight areas, such as air
ducts, reactors, pipelines.

Portable video inspection

unit with zoom allows
inspection of large tanks
and vessels, railroad tank
cars, sewer lines.
 Crack
Detection
Microscopy
4(I) CRACK DETECTION MICROSCOPE

Specifically designed high definition

microscope operates via an adjustable light
source provided by high power battery
Used for crack width measurement
(of concrete member, masonry and other type of
structures)
 Specification
Magnification = x 35
Measuring Range = 4 mm
Divisions = 0.02mm
Weight including battery and box = 560gr
Dimensions of box = 150 x 100 50mm deep

MASTARD
 Boroscope
• Boroscope - Measuring Concept
– A tube packed with optical fibre - a
viewing lens and light in one end and an
eyepiece for viewing light is provided via
a custom made light source through a
fibre optic cable
– The tip is inserted into a hole or
otherwise inaccessible areas. Images or
video-clips are recorded
 Boroscope
• Typical Applications
– Investigation of the inside of closed
box girders
– Detection of corrosion
NDT EQUIPMENTS FOR CONCRETE
STRUCTURES

• NON DESTRUCTIVE
– Crack detection microscopy
– Boroscope
– Ultrasonic Testing
– Impact Echo
– Infrared thermography
– Laser technique
– Concrete premeability
– Carbonation
 NDT EQUIPMENTS FOR STEEL
STRUCTURES

• NON DESTRUCTIVE
– Accoustic Emission
– Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
– Computer Tomography
– Corrosion Sensor
– Dye Penetrant
– Magnetic Flux leakage
– Radiographic Testing
– Robotic Inspection
– Magnetic Particle Examination
 Liquid
Penetrant
Testing
Liquid Penetrant Inspection
(PT)
The principle of the technique is that a
liquid is drawn by capillary attraction into
the defect and after subsequent
development, any surface – breaking
defects may be rendered visible to the
human eye.
 Penetrant Methods
1. In these methods the surface to be examined is
cleaned and then dried.
2. A penetrant fluid is then sprayed or swabbed
on the surface which should be warmed to
about 90C.
3. After sufficient time has elapsed for the
penetrant to fill any fissures which may be
present the excess is flushed from the surface
with warm water (the surface tension of the
water is too high to allow it to enter the narrow
fissure).
 Penetrant Methods
4- The test surface is then carefully dried, coated
with fine powdered chalk and set aside for
some time.
5- As the coated surface cools, it contracts and
penetrant tends to be squeezed out of any
cracks, so that the chalk layer becomes
stained, thus revealing the presence of the
cracks.
• Most penetrants of this type contain a scarlet
dye which renders the stain immediately
noticeable.
 Penetrant Methods
• Penetrants containing a compound which
fluoresces under the action of ultra-violet light
may also be used.
• This renders the use of messy chalk
unnecessary. When the prepared surface is
illuminated by ultra-violet light, the cracks
containing the penetrant are revealed as bright
lines on a dark background.
• Penetrant methods are particularly useful for the
examination of non-ferrous metals and austenitic
(non-magnetic) steels.
 The penetrant method of crack
detection.

(i) The cleaned surface is coated with penetrant which seeps into any cracks
present, (ii)Excess penetrant is removed from the surface,
(iii) The surface is coated with chalk. As the metallic surface cools and
contracts, penetrant is expelled from the crack to stain the chalk.
Dye penetrant method of crack
detection
1. Surface cleaning
2. Appling dye
penetrant
3. Sweep the excess
4. Coating with chalk
5. Chalk absorb
penetrant
 Fluorescent Inspection
• Special fluorescent penetrant liquids are
used which could be seen only under
ultra-violet light.
• Fluorescent penetrant inspection is
performed in a suitable screened area
using ultra-violet light.
• The technique causes the penetrant to
emit visible light, and defects are
brilliantly outlined
 Dye and Fluorescent Inspection
• Dye penetrant inspection carried out in
strong lighting conditions, while
fluorescent penetrant inspection is
performed in a suitable screened area
using ultra-violet light.
• The latter technique causes the penetrant
to emit visible light, and defects are
brilliantly outlined.
 Advantages & Limitations of PT
• The advantages of penetrant are:
• It is less expensive method.
• It is easy and portable.
• It is not need a high professional operator.
• However, the limitations are:
• Discontinuities must be open to surface.
• (Only surface defects).
• Must be care in pre cleaning
• Not documented.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
• A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics
is applied to the surface of the part and allowed
time to seep into surface breaking defects.
• The excess liquid is removed from the surface
of the part.
• A developer (powder) is applied to pull the
trapped penetrant out the defect and spread it
on the surface where it can be seen.
• Visual inspection is the final step in the
process. The penetrant used is often loaded
with a fluorescent dye and the inspection is
done under UV light to increase test
sensitivity.
Magnetic
Particle
Testing
Magnetic Particle (MT)

Magnetic particle inspection is a

sensitive method of locating surface
and some sub-surface defects in
Ferro-magnetic components.
Magnetic Particle Testing
Magnetic particle inspection is a
method that can be used to find
surface and near surface flaws in
ferromagnetic materials such as
steel and iron.
 Magnetic Particle Testing
The technique uses the principle that
magnetic lines of force (flux) will be
distorted by the presence of a flaw in a
manner that will reveal it's presence.
IRON POWDER
N S
S N S N

CRACK
 Magnetic Particle Testing

IRON POWDER

CRACK
N S

COIL
(COMPLETELY
CLOSED MAGNET)
 Magnetic Particle Testing
The flaw (for example, a crack) is located
from the "flux leakage", following the
application of fine iron particles, to the area
under examination. There are variations in
the way the magnetic field is applied.
IRON POWDER IRON POWDER

CRACK
N S
N S
S N

CRACK
 Magnetic Particle Testing
The iron particles can be applied dry or
wet; suspended in a liquid, colored or
fluorescent. While magnetic particle
inspection is primarily used to find
surface breaking flaws, it can also be
used to locate sub-surface flaws. But it's
effectiveness quickly diminishes
depending on the flaw depth and type.
 Magnetic Particle Testing
Surface irregularities and scratches can
give misleading indications. Therefore it
is necessary to ensure careful
preparation of the surface before
magnetic particle testing is undertaken.
 Magnetic Dust Methods
• Magnetic Dust Methods consist in laying the
steel component across the arms of a
magnetising machine and then sprinkling it with
a special magnetic powder.
• The excess powder is blown away, and any
cracks or defects are then revealed by a bunch
of powder sticking to the area oneach side of the
crack. Since the crack lies across the magnetic
field, lines of force will become widely separated
at the air gap and magnetic particles will align
themselves along the lines of force.
Magnetic Particle Testing
Magnetic Particle (MT)
The principles of magnetic
particle crack detection
 Advantages of Magnetic Test
The Advantages of magnetic test are:
1-It detects the surface and sub-surface
defects.
2-It is a high-speed test.
3-Either alternating (AC) or direct current
(DC) can be used.
 Limitations of Magnetic Test
However, the Limitations are:
1. It can only be used on material that can be magnetized.
2. Very thick coating masks detrimental indications.
3. Electrically is required for most applications.
4. Rough surface such as those seen on welds or
castings can make evaluation more difficult.
5. Although magnetic field travel across some air gap,
their intensity is reduced significantly as the length of
the air gap is increased.
6. Not documented method.
Radiography
(X- & Gamma- Ray
Inspection)

RT
RADIOGRAPHY (RT)

X-Ray
Gamma Ray
 Detection of Internal Defects
• Internal cavities in the form of blow holes or
shrinkage porosity may be present in
castings of all types, whilst wrought materials
may contain slag inclusion and other
subcutaneous flaws. Welded joints, by the
nature of their production methods, may
contain any of these defects.
• Since metals are opaque to light, other forms
of electromagnetic radiation of shorter
wavelength (X-rays and Gamma-rays) must
be used to penetrate metals and so reveal such
internal discontinuities.
 RADIOGRAPHY (RT)
• Very short wavelength electromagnetic
radiation, namely X-ray or Gamma - Ray, will
penetrate through solid media but will be
partially absorbed by the medium.
• The amount of absorption, which will occur,
will depend upon the density and thickness
of the material the radiation is passing
through, and also the characteristics of the
radiation.
• The radiation which passes through the
material can be detected and recorded on
film, viewed on a fluorescent screen .
 RADIOGRAPHY (RT)
• After the exposed radiographic film has been
developed, an image of varying density will be
observed with that portion of the film, which has
received the largest amount of radiation being the
darkest.
• As mentioned earlier, the amount of radiation
absorbed by the material will be a function of its
density and thickness.
• The amount of the absorption will also be affected by
the presence of certain defects such as voids or
porosity within the material.
• Thus, radiography can be used for the inspection of
material and components to detect certain types of
defect.
 X-ray Methods
• X-rays are used in much the same way as they
are used in medical radiography, that is, for the
detection of cavities, flaws and other
discontinuities in castings, welded joints and the
like.
• X-rays, which have a high frequency will
penetrate more deeply and the 'harder' the X-
rays (ie the higher the frequency) the greater the
depth of penetration.
• X-rays used in metallurgical radiography are
harder than those used in medicine, and are
better able to penetrate metals. (Harm Effect??)
 Uses of Radiograph
• Radiography is used for detection of internal defects,
surface defects and the correctness of part
assemblies.
• In addition, it can be used for many materials but there
are limitations on the maximum material thickness.
• Radiography inspection techniques are frequently used
for checking of weld for weldment and thick wall.
• It can also be used to inspect most types of solid
material metallic or non-metallic .both ferrous and non-
ferrous.
• A number of factors, including the type and geometry of
the material and the type of flaw, affect the sensitivities
of the radiography processes
X-ray Methods
 X-ray fluoroscopy
• A fluorescent screen may be
substituted for the photographic film so
that the resultant radiograph may be
viewed instantaneously.
• This type of fluoroscopy is obviously much
cheaper and quicker but is less
sensitive than photography and its use is
generally limited to the less-dense metals
and alloys.
 Gamma-ray Methods
• Gamma-ray methods can also be used in the
radiography of metals. Since they are of
shorter wavelength than are X-rays, they are
able to penetrate more effectively a greater
thickness of metal.
• Hence they are particularly useful in the
radiography of steel, which absorbs radiation
more readily than do light alloys.
• Gamma-radiation is 'harder' than X-radiation
Gamma-ray isotopes sources
used in industry
Source Half- Photon
life Energy
Cobalt- 5.3 1.17,1.33
60 year MeV
Caesium 33
-137 year
Gamma-radiography manual
remote wind-out system,

(i) y-ray source exposed; (ii) y-ray source stored.

Methods of Radiographic Testing
of Pipeline
 Comparison between
X-rays & γ- rays (Advantages)
γ- rays X-rays
1. The cost of equipment 1. Its cost is relatively high.
&source is much less . 2. the radiation can be turned off.
2. Isotope equipment is more 3. penetration power is
easy to transported. adjustable.
3. the isotope source is small 4. Can be used for all materials.
enough to pass through small 5. It has a good contrast .
opening.
6. required source of electrical
4. No external power supply. power.
5. Both panorama & directional 7. tube head usually large in size.
exposure can be made.
6. some isotopes have Avery
high penetrating power
 Comparison between
X-rays & γ- rays (Limitations)
γ- rays
1-The radiation cannot be
turned off, need a greater safety.
2-It generally has less
construct.
3-the shielding necessary to
properly handled.
X-rays
1- Its cost is relatively high.
2-required source of electrical
power.
3- tube head usually large in size.
4-there is
 Advantages & Limitations of
Radiography
The radiography has many advantages,
which can summarize as following:
1- Can be used for most material
2- Provides a permanent visual image
3- Reveals the internal nature of material
4- Discloses fabrication errors
5- Reveals structural discontinuities.
 limitations of radiography
We can summer the limitations of radiography in
this points:
1-Impracticable to use on a specimens of
complex geometry.
2- The specimen must lend it self to two side.
3- Laminar type discontinuities are often
undetected by radiography.
4- Safety consideration must be considered.
5- It is relatively more expensive than other
methods of inspection.
6- It take a long time to be ready .
Image Quality Indicators (IQI)
To be able to assess the image quality of a
radiograph, it needs to be converted into a
numerical value, and to do this we use "image
quality indicators" (IQI), known in the USA as
"pentameters ".
Image quality indicator consists typically of a
series of thin wires of various diameters or a
series of small plates of various thickness
drilled with small holes of various diameters.
The image quality indicator is placed in contact
with the object being radiograph on the side
facing the exposure source.
Image Quality Indicators (IQI)
The sensitivity of the radiograph is, for example,
quoted as the number of the thinnest wire, which
is still visible.
The image quality indicators used must be made
from the same from material as the specimen.
There are, and have been, many proposed design
of IQI, but today there are two designs in use:
1- The wire type (used in most European
countries)
2- The plaque/hole type (used in the USA)
Image Quality Indicators (IQI)
1. ASME V
2. ASTM E747
Ultrasonic
Testing
ULRASONIC TESTING (UT)
Ultrasonic techniques are very widely
used for the detection of internal defects
in materials, but it can not be used for the
detection of small surface crack.
 Nature of Sound
• Sound waves are elastic waves, which can be
transmitted through both fluid and solid media.
• The audible range of frequency is from about
20Hz.to about 20kHz but it possible to produce
elastic waves of the same nature as sound at
frequencies up to 500MHz
• Elastic waves with frequencies higher than
the audio range are described as ultrasonic.
•
 Nature of Sound
• The waves used for the non-destructive
inspection of materials are usually within the
frequency range 0.5MHz to 20MHz
• In fluids, sound waves are of the longitudinal
compression type in which particle
displacement is the direction of wave
propagation but in solids, they are shear
waves, with particle displacement normal to
the direction of wave travel, and elastic
surface waves can also occur
 Wave Velocity
Velocity of longitudinal velocity (m/s) Medium

sound waves is
330 Air
mentioned in the
following table 1430 Water

1740 Oil

6190 Aluminum

4600 Copper

5770 Magnesium

5810 Steel
 Ultra-sonic Methods
• Ordinary sound waves tend to bypass the small defects we are
dealing with in metallic components and ultra-sonic
frequencies (between 0.5 and 20 MHz) are used for metals
inspection.

• When an ultrasonic vibration is transmitted from one medium

to another some reflection occurs at the interface.

• Any discontinuity in a structure will therefore provide a

reflecting surface for ultrasonic impulses. A probe containing
an electrically-excited quartz or barium titanate crystal which
can both transmit and receive high-frequency vibrations is
used to traverse the surface of the material to be examined.
The probe is coupled to a pulse generator and to a signal
amplifier which transfers the resultant 'image' to a CRT
(cathode-ray tube).
 Ultrasonic Inspection
Techniques (UT)
• Several UT techniques are used -
1- Laser generated ultrasound
• in transmission, component has to absorb energy
• in reception, component has to reflect energy
2- Electro-Magnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMAT)
• conductive components
3- Piezoelectric transducers
• contact; immersion; non-contact; dual element; arrays;
etc
• Longitudinal wave; shear wave; Lamb wave;
surface wave; etc
 Piezoelectric Effect
•Conversion of electrical energy to
mechanical energy ------Indirect
piezoelectric effect
•Conversion of mechanical energy to
electrical energy ----Direct piezoelectric
effect
•Piezoelectric materials can occur in
nature (eg quartz), but today most
common are man-made (eg pzt)
Materials have to be poled
(polarized) to produce
piezoelectric effect
Ultrasonic Transducer
Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasound imaging: What does it look
like?
Ultrasound imaging: more surface
rendering
 UT Projecting Methods
• Pulse Reflection method
Using Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope
• Transmission method
Ultra-sonic Methods
• Basic principles of ultrasonic testing.
• The values of 'd' and 't' in the test piece are
proportional to the values of 'd1' and 't1'
shown on the CRT.
Reflection and Transmission
Pulse Eche technique
Imaging example
Thickness Measurements
Signal Conditioning
Pulser & Receiver at the same
head
 Advantages of UT
1. The applications of ultrasonic testing include both
surface and Sub-surface flaw detection.
2. - This method is most sensitive to planer
discontinuities, especially those that are oriented
perpendicular to the sound beam.
3- Along with soundness determinations, thickness
measurements can also be made.
4- UT required access to one side of the material to be
tested (vessels, tanks, and piping system).
5-UT has deep penetration ability, up to 200 inches in
steel.
6- Modern ultrasonic testing equipment is very light
weight and often battery powered making this
equipment quite portable.
 Limitations of UT
1- UT requires a highly skilled and
experienced operator, (difficult
interpretation).
2- Test object surface must be fairly smooth,
and couplant is required for contact
testing.
 Measuring Metal Thickness
Through Paint
• Application: Accurately measuring
remaining wall thickness of metal pipes,
tanks, beams, ship hulls,
and other structures
through paint and
similar coatings.
Measuring Metal Thickness
Through Paint
Acoustic
Emission
Testing
Acoustic emission
 Acoustic Emission Testing

Acoustic emission monitoring (AE) involves

listening to the sounds (which are usually
inaudible to the human ear) made by a
material, structure or machine in use or under
load and drawing conclusions about it's "state
of health" from what is heard, just as a Doctor
would listen to your heart and lungs.
 Acoustic Emission Testing
The technique involves attaching one or more
ultrasonic microphones to the object and
analyzing the sounds using computer based
instruments.
The noises may arise
from friction (including
bearing wear), crack
growth, turbulence
(including leakage) and
material changes such
as corrosion.
 Acoustic Emission Testing
The advantages of AE are that a whole structure
can be monitored from a few locations, the
structure can be tested in use (without taking it
out of service) and continuous monitoring with
alarms is possible. Microscopic changes can be
detected if sufficient energy is released and
source location is also possible using multiple
sensors.
 Acoustic Emission Testing

Applications include testing pipelines and

storage tanks (above and below the
ground), fibreglass structures, rotating
machinery, weld monitoring and biological
and chemical changes.
 Theory of Operation:
• Longitudinal wave sound velocity in steel is
typically around 5,900 m/s (0.2320 in/us),
• while sound velocity in paint and similar coatings
is normally less than 2,500 m/s (0.1000 in/us).
• A conventional ultrasonic gage that measures
the total thickness of painted metal will
erroneously measure the paint layer at the
velocity of steel, meaning that the paint will
appear to be at least 2.35 times thicker (the ratio
of the two sound velocities) than it actually is.
 Echo-to-echo advantages:

• Works with a variety of common transducers

• Often works through rough-surfaced
coatings
• Can be performed at high temperatures up
to approximately 500 C or 930 F with
appropriate transducers.
Echo-to echo disadvantages:
• Requires multiple backwall echoes, which
may not exist in severely corroded metals.
• Thickness range may be more limited than
with Thru-Coat.
 Echo-to-echo advantages:
Thru-Coat advantages:
• Works over a wide range of metal
thicknesses, typically from 1 mm (0.040") to
greater than 50 mm (2") in steel.
• Requires only one back wall echo.
• May measure minimum remaining metal
thickness more accurately in pitting
situations.
Thru-Coat disadvantages:
• Coating must be at least 0.125 mm (0.005")
thick.
• Coating surface must be relatively smooth.
• Requires use of one of two specialized
transducers. Maximum surface temperature
is approximately 50 C or 125 F.
4(II) ACOUSTIC EMISSION EQUIPMENTS

Acoustic emission technique is a

recent development to monitor the
health of bridges.
It can detect location of cracks at an
early stage and can monitor the crack
growth.
Effective method for steel, in
development stage for concrete
 What Is Acoustic Emission ?
• Elastic waves are generated inside the material,
whenever there is breakage of atomic bonds.
• Elastic waves are also generated due to rubbing /
clattering of two surfaces or rattling of loose bolts /
rivets.
• All these types of waves are called acoustic emission.
• The emission intensity is approx. equal to the energy
released in a pencil lead break.
• Ferrous materials, Brittle materials generate AE
• But all materials do not generate AE like copper
 Why Material Emit AE ?
• When a micro crack in a material elongates, work
hardening of the crack tip takes place
• This work hardening increases the strength at tip and
material takes more load without further cracking
(Kaizer effect)
• When load further increases, work hardened brittle
tip ruptures, This sudden rupture generates AE.This
AE frequency in steel is between 250 KHz to 500
KHz with pre-dominance at around 375 KHz.
• This AE is different than AE generated due to other
sources like rattling/rubbing
• AE testing is basically to filter out this emission from
other emissions called noises
Old Yammuna Bridge at Delhi
Transducer

Cost around 400 dollers

 Tubing
Inspection
Using Multiple
NDT Techniques
The methods presented include:
1. Remote Field Eddy Current, (RFT)
2. magnetic flux leakage,
3. internal rotary inspection system (IRIS) and
4. Eddy current.
Cost savings include lower inspection costs, lower
turnaround costs, avoiding lost production, and
allow better planning of inspection and maintenance
intervals. To achieve these savings and improve
integrity, the owner-user must understand the
capabilities and pitfalls of the NDT technologies in
order to select, apply and interpret the results of
these methods. A methodology of providing rapid
qualitative screening techniques before applying
slower quantitative techniques is presented to
maximize heat exchanger integrity while minimizing
inspection costs.
 Eddie
Current
Testing
 Eddy Current Testing

Coil's
Coil magnetic field

Eddy current's
magnetic field
Eddy
currents

Conductive
material
Schematic of RFT probe
RFT Field inside boiler tube
Actual RFT boiler probe
Voltage-Plane Curve
 Eddie Current Testing
Eddy current testing is an electromagnetic
technique and can only be used on conductive
materials. It's applications range from crack
detection, to the rapid sorting of small
components for either flaws, size variations,
or material variation. Commonly it is used in
the aerospace, automotive, marine and
manufacturinq industries.
 Eddie Current Testing
When the eddy currents in the specimen are
distorted by the presence of the flaws or
material variations, the impedance in the coil
is altered. This change is measured and
displayed in a manner that indicates the type
of flaw or material condition.
 Eddie Current Testing
When an energized coil is brought near to the
surface of a metal component, eddy currents
are induced into the specimen. These currents
set-up magnetic field that tend to oppose the
original magnetic field. The impedance of coil
in close proximity to the specimen is effected
by the presence of the induced eddy currents
in the specimen.
 Tube
inspection
 Principal NDT Techniques
• Visual Inspection : optical and audio
• Radiography : X-ray and gamma-rays
• Thermography : thermal imaging
• Electromagnetic : conductive materials
• Magnetic Particle Testing : ferromagnetic
materials
• Penetrant Testing : application of
fluorescent dyes
• Acoustic Emission : independently
generated by defect
• Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques
 X-ray photographic film.
• The welded is interposed between a
shielded source of X-rays and a
photographic film.
• Some of the radiation will be absorbed by
the metal so that the density of the
photographic image will vary with the
thickness of the metal through which the
rays have passed.