14EIT52 BIOMEDICAL

INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT-I

Human Physiological Systems

 UNIT-I
• Human Physiological Systems: Cell and its structure-
Resting and action potentials-Different systems of
human body: Skeletal system-Circulatory system-
Respiratory system-Excretory system-Central nervous
system-Peripheral nervous system.

• Physiological Transducers: Introduction-Classification

of transducers-Displacement, position and motion
transducers: Piezo electric transducers-Ultrasonic
transducers-Transducers for body temperature
measurements: Thermocouples-Electrical resistance
Thermometer-Thermistors. Optical fibre sensors.
Cell and its structure
 Cell and its structure
• Human Body Contains 100 Trillian Cells
• Cell Substance: Collectively Called Protoplasm
combines water , carbohydrate, Lipids, Protein
• Cell Substance: Organelles consisting of chemical
constituents- Cytosol, Ribosomes ,RNA,
Lysosomes, Mitochondria, DNA
• Cell Substance: Nucleolus – RNA and Proteins
 Cell Substance- Protoplasm

2. Electrolyte: Potassium,
Magnesium, Phosphate,
1. Water : 70 to 85 % - Bicarbonate and Small
3. Proteins: 10 to 20% -
Solvent for Various Chemical Quantities of Sodium,
Muscle Contraction
Reactions Calcium and Chloride –
Provides Inorganic chemicals
for cellular reactions
 Cell Substance- Protoplasm

4. Lipids :It is composed of different 5. Carbohydrates : Major roll in

substances. Phospholipids and nutrition of the cell.
Cholesterol -Soluble in Fat and Inside the cell : In the form of Glycogen
Insoluble in Water Outside the cell: In the form of Glucose
 Cell Substance: Organelles
• Cytoplasm: Minute and Large Particles
• Lysosomes: Intracellular Digestive system
• Mitochondria: power of Houses
• RNA(Ribonucleic Acid): Synthesis of Proteins
• DNA(Deoxyribonucleic Acid) :Controls the
Replication of the Cell.
 Cell Substance: Nucleus
• It Contains Large Amount of RNA and DNA
• DNA(Deoxyribonucleic Acid) :Controls the
Replication of the Cell. Cell Size
determination.(5-10μm). DNA grows more
due to the increased production of RNA and
Cell proteins.
Cell and its structure
 What are bio potentials
Biopotential: An electric potential that is measured between points in living cells, tissues, and
organisms, and which accompanies all biochemical processes.
• Also describes the transfer of information between and within cells
• This book focuses strictly on the measurement of potentials
 Mechanism behind biopotentials
• Concentration of potassium (K+) ions is 30-
50 times higher inside as compared to
outside
• Sodium ion (Na+) concentration is 10 times Vm  70...  100 mV

higher outside the membrane than inside

• In resting state the member is permeable
only for potassium ions
 Potassium flows outwards leaving an
equal number of negative ions inside
 Electrostatic attraction pulls potassium
and chloride ions close to the
membrane
 Electric field directed inward forms
 Electrostatic force vs. diffusional force

Vm  70...  100 mV
 Mechanism behind bio potentials
• When membrane stimulation exceeds a
threshold level of about 20 mV, so called
action potential occurs:
1. Sodium and potassium ionic permeabilities
of the membrane change
2. Sodium ion permeability increases very
rapidly at first, allowing sodium ions to flow
from outside to inside, making the inside
more positive
3. The more slowly increasing potassium ion
permeability allows potassium ions to flow
from inside to outside, thus returning
membrane potential to its resting value
4. While at rest, the Na-K pump restores the
ion concentrations to their original values
• The number of ions flowing through an
open channel >106/sec
• Body is an inhomogeneous volume
conductor and these ion fluxes create
measurable potentials on body surface
Resting and action potentials
Characteristics of Resting Potential
 Different systems of human body:
• Skeletal system
• Circulatory system
• Respiratory system
• Excretory system
• Central nervous system
• Peripheral nervous system.
 Skeletal system
• 206 Bones,
Cartilages,
Major Associated
Organs: ligaments, bone
marrow

• Provide support and

protection for other
tissues
Functions: • Store calcium and
other minerals
• Forms blood cell
 Circulatory system
• Heart, Blood,
Blood Vessels
Major
Organs:

• Distribute blood
cells, water and
dissolved
Functions: materials
including
nutrients, waste
products , O2and
CO2
 Circulatory system….
• systemic circulation- The flow of the
blood from the heart to all parts of the
body and back to the heart.
• pulmonary circulation-The flow of blood
from the heart to the lungs and back to
the heart through the pulmonary arteries,
capillaries and veins.
• vein-A vessel that carries blood to the
heart.
• artery-A blood vessel that carries blood
away from the heart to other organs.
• capillary- A tiny blood vessel that allows
exchange between blood, cells and other
tissue.
• blood pressure-The force that blood
exerts on the walls of the arteries.
 Respiratory system
Major Organs:
• Nasal cavities, Sinuses,
Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi,
Lungs, Alveoli.
Functions:
• Delivers air to alveoli
• Provides oxygen to blood stream
• Removes Carbons dioxide from
blood stream
• Produces Sounds for
Communication
Respiratory system
• Respiration-The exchange of oxygen
and carbon dioxide between living
cells and their environment;
includes breathing and cellular
respiration.
• Pharynx-Is a muscular tube that
connect with the nasal cavity with
the trachea.
• larynx-Is a series of tissues
surrounded by protective cartilage.
• Trachea-Is a pipe or a tube for air.
• Bronchus-Are tubes that lead into
the right and left lung.
• Alveoli-Is tiny branches that are
small air sacs.
 Excretory system
Major Organs:
Kidneys, Urethra,Urnari
bladder, Ureter
Functions:
 Excretes waste product
from blood
 Control water balance
by regulating volume of
the urine produce
 Regulate the PH and
blood ion concentration
 Excretory system…
 Nephron- each of the functional units in the kidney
 Urea- a colourless crystalline compound that is the
main nitrogenous breakdown product of protein.
 Antidiuretic- is a hormone that helps your kidney
manage the amount of water in your body.
 Diuretic- causing increased passing of urine.
Brain Structures
 NERVOUS SYSTEM

Telencephalon Diencephalon Mesencephalon Metencephalon Myelencephalon

 CNS- Brain Structures
1. Lobes of the Brain
2. Motor Cortex and
Somatosensory Cortex
3. Cerebrum
4. Cerebellum
5. Brain Stem
6. The Limbic System
7. Hypothalamus
8. Thalamus
9. Midbrain
10. Basal Ganglia
 CNS- Brain Structures
• Cerebral Cortex
Functions:
 Thought
 Voluntary movement
 Language
 Reasoning
 Perception

• The word "cortex" comes from the Latin word for "bark" (of a tree). This is
because the cortex is a sheet of tissue that makes up the outer layer of
the brain. The thickness of the cerebral cortex varies from 2 to 6 mm. The
right and left sides of the cerebral cortex are connected by a thick band of
nerve fibers called the "corpus callosum." In higher mammals such as
humans, the cerebral cortex looks like it has many bumps and grooves
 CNS- Brain Structures
• Cerebellum
• Functions:
 Movement
 Balance
 Posture
• The word "cerebellum" is
derived from the Latin
word for "little brain."
Located behind the brain
stem, the cerebellum is
similar to the cerebral
cortex because it has
hemispheres and a
cortex that surrounds
the hemispheres.
 CNS- Brain Structures
• Brain stem
• Functions:
 Breathing
 Heart Rate
 Blood Pressure
• The brain stem refers to the
area of the brain between
the thalamus and spinal
cord. Structures of the
brain stem include the
pons, medulla oblongta,
tectum, reticular formation
and tegmentum. The brain
stem is important for
maintaining basic life
functions such as
breathing, heart rate and
blood pressure.
 CNS- Brain Structures
• Hypothalamus
• Functions:
 Body Temperature
 Emotions
 Hunger
 Thirst
 Circadian Rhythms

• The hypothalamus is composed of several different areas and is located

at the base of the brain. The hypothalamus is only 1/300 of the total
brain weight. One function of the hypothalamus is the control of body
temperature. The hypothalamus detects changes in body temperature
and sends commands to adjust the temperature. For example, the
hypothalamus can detect fever and respond by sending a command to
expand capillaries in the skin. The expansion of the capillaries cools the
blood and results in a drop in body temperature. The hypothalamus also
controls the pituitary.
 CNS- Brain Structures
• Thalamus
• Functions:
 Sensory processing
 Movement
• The thalamus receives
sensory information from
other areas of the
nervous system and
sends this information to
the cerebral cortex. The
thalamus is also
important for processing
information related to
movement.
 CNS- Brain Structures
• Limbic System
• Functions:
 Emotions
 Memory
• The limbic system (or the
limbic areas) is a group of
structures that includes the
amygdala, the hippocampus,
mammillary bodies and
cingulate gyrus. These areas
are important for controlling
the emotional response to a
given situation. The
hippocampus is also
important for memory.
 CNS- Brain Structures
• Basal Ganglia
• Functions:
Movement
• The basal ganglia
are a group of
structures that are
important in
coordinating
movement.
 CNS- Brain Structures
• Hippocampus
• Functions:
 Learning
 Memory
• The hippocampus
is one part of the
limbic system
that is important
for memory and
learning.
 CNS- Brain Structures
• Midbrain
• Functions:
 Vision
 Audition
 Eye Movement
 Body Movement
• The midbrain includes
structures such as the
superior and inferior
colliculi and red nucleus.
There are several other
areas also in the
midbrain.
CNS- Brain Structures
CNS- Brain Structures
 PNS
• The peripheral nervous system includes all the nerves that
go from the skin, muscle, and organs to the spinal cord
and, eventually, the brain. However, the central nervous
system is composed of the brain and spinal cord.
• In the peripheral nervous system, neurons can be
functionally divided in three ways:
1. Sensory (afferent) - carry information INTO the central
nervous system from sense organs or motor (efferent) -
carry information away from the central nervous system
(for muscle control).
2. Cranial - connects the brain with the periphery or spinal -
connects the spinal cord with the periphery.
3. Somatic - connects the skin or muscle with the central
nervous system or visceral - connects the internal organs
with the central nervous system.
 PNS

peripheral nervous
system (PNS)
– all the nervous system except the brain and spinal cord
– composed of nerves and ganglia
• nerve – a bundle of nerve fibers (axons) wrapped in swelling in a nerve
where neuron cell bodies are confibrous connective tissue
• ganglion – a knot-like centrated
PNS
PNS
 Sensory Divisions of PNS

• sensory (afferent) division –

carries sensory signals from
various receptors to the CNS

– informs the CNS of stimuli

within or around the body

– somatic sensory division

– carries signals from
receptors in the skin,
muscles, bones, and joints

– visceral sensory division

– carries signals from the
viscera of the thoracic and
abdominal cavities
• heart, lungs, stomach,
and urinary bladder
 Motor Divisions of PNS

•motor (efferent)
division – carries signals
from the CNS to gland
and muscle cells that
carry out the body’s
response
•effectors – cells and
organs that respond to
commands from the CNS
–somatic motor division
– carries signals to
skeletal muscles
•output produces
muscular contraction as
well as somatic reflexes
– involuntary muscle
contractions
 Motor Divisions of PNS…..
visceral motor division
(autonomic nervous system) -
carries signals to glands, cardiac
muscle, and smooth muscle
involuntary, and responses of
this system and its receptors are
visceral reflexes
• sympathetic division
–tends to arouse body for action
–accelerating heart beat and
respiration, while inhibiting
digestive and urinary systems
• parasympathetic division
–tends to have calming effect
–slows heart rate and breathing
–stimulates digestive and urinary
systems
 NERVOUS SYSTEM
Differences between CNS & PNS
• In the CNS, collections
of neurons are called
nuclei. In the PNS,
collections of neurons
are called ganglia.

• In the CNS, collections

of axons are called
tracts. In the PNS,
collections of axons are
called nerves.
 Physiological Transducers:
• Transducer: Converting One form of Energy
into another Form of Energy
• Sensor: Sensing and conversion in the same
domain
• Active Transducer: Without the use of an
Excitation Voltage
• Passive Transducer: Gives output with
excitation voltage
 Physiological Transducers:
Body Temperature Measurement

Human Body typically 37°C ±0.5 °C

Contact Measurement : Heat Conduction from Body

Tissue to the Sensor

Non Contact Measurement: Based on Radiation

Thermometry.

Mercury in Glass Thermometer: Slow, Difficult to read,

Susceptible to contamination, Not Reliable Accuracy
Body Temperature Measurement
Body Temperature Measurement Thermocouple

• LM135 with compensation circuit

 Small Size and Fast Response
Intra Cellular transient temperature
measurement
Esophagus, Rectum
Cu- Ni Micro thermocouple
 Dynamic and static temp. In biological tissue
 Retina of Eye
 Body Temperature Measurement RTD

• Linear Platinum RTD

• Measurement Points: Skin, Rectal and
Esophageal
• Require Bridge circuit
 Body Temperature Measurement Thermistor

• High Sensitivity , Fast

Response, Non Linear
• Measurement Points:
Skin with wafer , Rectal
and Tissues (Tip of a
hypodermic needle for
insertion)
• Long Distance
Measurement,
teletherometry.
 Body Temperature Measurement Radiation
Thermometry
• Any material placed above absolute zero
temperature emits electromagnetic radiation from
its surface. Both the amplitude and frequency of
the emitted radiation depends on the
temperature of the object.
• IR: Non Contact, Thermopiles, Photoconductive
Cells
• Rarely used
 Body Temperature Measurement Silicon Diode

• The voltage drop across a

forward biased silicon diode is
known to vary at the rate of 2
mV/°C. This suggests that a
silicon diode can be used as a
temperature sensor. Griffths
and Hill (1969) describe the
technique and circuit diagram
for the measurement of
temperature using a silicon
diode.
• Temperature in the range of
34–40°C with an
• accuracy of 2.5%.
 Comparison of Electrical
Temperature-Sensing Techniques
 Fiber-optic Temperature Sensor
• Sensor operation
• small prism-shaped sample of single-crystal undoped
GaAs attached to ends of two optical fibers
• light energy absorbed by the GaAs crystal depends on
temperature
• percentage of received vs. transmitted energy is a
function of temperature
• Can be made small enough for biological implantation
 Potentiometer
• Potentiometers produce output potential (voltage) change in
response to input (e.g., displacement) changes typically formed
with resistive elements ∆V = I ∆ R
• produce linear output in response to displacement
 Variable Capacitance

• When the distance between a pair of metallic plates forming an

electrical capacitance is altered, there is a change in the
capacitance according to the relation:
• C = k *(A/d), where
C = capacitance in micro-microfarads; d = distance between the plates in cm
A = area of each identical plate in cm2
k = dielectric constant of the medium separating the two plates
 Variable Capacitance
• When there is difference
in P1 & P2 then diaphragm
moves toward low
pressure side and
accordingly capacitance
varies.
• So, capacitance becomes
function of pressure and
that pressure can be
measured by using bridge
circuit
• It can be used for blood
pressure measurement.
 Variable Inductance -LVDT

• LVDT :
• An inductor is basically a coil of wire over a “core” (usually ferrous)
• It responds to electric or magnetic Fields
• A transformer is made of at least two coils wound over the core: one
is primary and another is secondary
Variable Inductance -LVDT
 LVDT - Brain Probe –
Medical Surgery Application
• The instrument uses a unique
push/pull cable drive
mechanism to move the
carrier that guides the probe
to the problem area of the
brain. A surgeon manipulates
the up and down motion by
means of a dial micrometer
(pictured on top of the meter
display). The LVDT (also shown
in this photo) is mounted at
the top of the structure
pointed in the same direction
as the probe. The LVDT body is
held stationary, while the core
and extension rod are
attached to the carrier and
follow its movement.
 Piezo electric transducers
• The Piezoelectric transducer is an electroacoustic
transducer use for conversion of pressure or
mechanical stress into an alternating electrical
force. It is used for measuring the physical quantity
like force, pressure, stress, etc., which is directly not
possible to measure.

Materials:
quartz, tourmaline,
ammonium dihydrogen
phosphate,
Rochelle salt, Lithium sulphate,
lead zirconate and
barium titanate.
Piezo electric transducers

where
Q = generated charge
Cp = shunt capacitances
 Application of Piezoelectric
Materials
 In microphones, the sound pressure is converted into
electric signal and this signal is ultimately amplified to
produce louder sound.
 Automobile seat belts lock in response to a rapid
deceleration is also done by piezoelectric material.
 It is also used in medical diagnostics.
 It is used in electric lighter used in kitchens. Pressure made
on piezoelectric sensor creates an electric signal which
ultimately causes flash to fire up.
 They are used for studying high speed shock waves and
blast waves.
 Used in fertility treatment.
 Used in Inkjet printers
 It is also used in restaurants or airports where when a
person steps near the door and the door opens
automatically. In this the concept used is when person is
near the door a pressure is exerted persons weight on the
sensors due to which the electric effect is produced and the
door opens automatically.
Ultrasonic Transducer
Ultrasonic Transducer
• An ultrasonic
transmitter sends a
sound frequency of
above 18 kHz in the air
at the speed of 344
meter per second (at
20°C) and the receiver
receives the reflected
sound from the object.
 Ultrasonic Transducer Application
• Medical ultrasonic
transducers
(probes) come in a
variety of different
shapes and sizes
for use in making
cross-sectional
images of various
parts of the body.
 Ultrasonic Transducer Application

where Vrbc is velocity of the red blood cells,

ϴ is the angle between the transmitted ultrasonic
wave and the motion of RBCs, and
c is the speed of sound moving through soft tissues
which is approximately 1.5 x 10 ^5 cm/ s.
fDoppler is the difference between the received
frequency f' and transmitted frequency f0
 Optical fibre sensors
The optical fiber
consists of the core and
the cladding, which
have different refractive
indexes. The light beam
travels through the core
by repeatedly bouncing
off the wall of the
cladding.
The light beam, having passed through the fiber
without any loss in light quantity, is dispersed at an
angle of approximately 60° and emitted to the
target.
 Fiber Optics
Based on Total Internal Reflection

Taken from http://hyperphysics.phy-

astr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/totint.html#c1
 Fiber Optic Temperature Sensors

Nortech's fiber-optic temperature sensor probe consists of a gallium arsenide crystal and a
dielectric mirror on one end of an optical fiber and a stainless steel connector at the other
end. Taken from http://www.sensorsmag.com/articles/0501/57/main.shtml
 Optical fibre sensors – Temperature Measurement

For fibre optic temperature sensors, the sensing

element is usually deposited directly on the cleaved
end of an optical fibre and temperature is deduced
from the reflected phase or spectrum.
 Optical fibre sensors

• Another approach is to use a bimetallic strip (or

other temperature sensitive mechanism) to bend
the glass fibre sufficiently to generate a
measurable anomaly.