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STELLAR
EVOLUTION
An introduction to
the beginning of the
universe and the
formation of stars.
The BigBang
The Origin of
the universe
is thought to
be from the
Big Bang,
which
occurred
~13.9 billion
years ago.
Since then,
the universe
has been
continually
expanding.
LIGHT ELEMENTS
Triggered by the separation of the strong nuclear force, the universe undergoes an extremely
rapid exponential expansion, known as cosmic inflation. This is the linear dimensions of the early
universe increases during this period of a tiny fraction of a second by a factor of at least 1026
to around 10 centimeters (about the size of a grapefruit). The elementary particles remaining
from the Grand Unification Epoch hot, dense quark-gluon plasma, sometimes known as “quark
soup”) become distributed very thinly across the universe.
TIMELINE OF BIGBANG
The temperature of the universe falls to the point (about a billion degrees)
where atomic nuclei can begin to form as protons and neutrons combine through
nuclear fusion to form the nuclei of the simple elements of hydrogen, helium and
lithium. After about 20 minutes, the temperature and density of the universe
has fallen to the point where nuclear fusion cannot continue.
TIMELINE OF BIGBANG
The period after the formation of their first atoms and before the first stars is sometimes
referred to as the Dark Age. Although photons exist, the universe at this time is literally
dark, with no stars having formed to give off light. With only very diffuse matter
remaining, activity in the universe has tailed off dramatically; with very low energy levels
and very large time scales. Little of note happens during this period, and the universe is
dominated by mysterious “dark matter”.
TIMELINE OF BIGBANG
10. Reionization, 150 million to 1 billion years
The first quasars form from gravitational collapse, and the intense radiation
they emit re-ionizes the surrounding universe, the second of two major phase
changes of hydrogen gas in the universe (the first being the Recombination
period). From this point on, most of the universe goes from being neutral back
to being composed of ionized plasma.
TIMELINE OF BIGBANG
11. Star and Galaxy Formation, 300 - 500 million years onwards
Gravity amplifies slight irregularities in the density of the primordial gas and
pockets of gas become more and more dense, even as the universe continues to
expand rapidly. These small, dense clouds of cosmic gas start to collapse under
their own gravity, becoming hot enough to trigger nuclear fusion reactions
between hydrogen atoms, creating the very first stars.
Hertzsprung Russell
Diagram
The H-R diagram
shows the
relation between
temperature and
luminosity in
stars.
Main sequence
stars are found
along the main
branch that
extends from the
top left to the
bottom right of
the diagram.
Birth of Stars
Nebula are clouds
of dust and gas.
Stellar nebula are
specifically the
beginnings of stars.
As they being to
accrete, the dust
and gas will
coalesce and
eventually form a
star.
The accretion
begins to
form a
protostar. Formation of a proto star from a
All stars have a life
Life Cycle of Stars
cycle that begins
with a stellar nebula,
but can lead to
different fates.
Sun-sized stars
evolve along the
main sequence, and
then become red
giants.
More massive stars
become red
supergiants and
eventually end in
supernova
explosions.
SUMMARY
The Big Bang occurred ~13.9 billion
years ago and the universe has been
expanding ever since.
The Hertzsprung Russell diagram
describes the relation between
temperature and luminosity in stars.
Stellar nebula are clouds of gas and
dust that eventually form stars.
Stars form through the collapse of
stellar nebula and subsequent accretion.
The Life Cycle of Stars describes the
evolutionary paths for stars.
Nuclear Fusion
An introduction to the
hydrogen burning and the
Alpha Particle
Subatomic
Particles
The subatomic
particles combine
to form an atom
Proton:
Positively
charged, one mass
unit, located in
nucleus
Neutron: Neutral,
one mass unit,
located in
BASICS OF AN ATOMIC
NUCLEUS
An atom is defined by
the number of protons Atomic Mass (A)
it has in its nucleus
Atomic Number:
Number of protons
1
Atomic Mass:
Sum of neutrons and 1 H +
protons
Hydrogen Nucleus
Atomic number (Z)
Atomic Number: 1
Atomic Mass: 1
MAIN SEQUENCE
STARS
Main sequence The outward push from
stars are like our thermal pressure
sun
They have an
balance between The inward
push from
outward thermal gravity
pressure and
inward
gravitational The pressure is
pressure. generated from
the thermal
energy from
This balance is nuclear fusion
called hydrostatic in the core
equilibrium.
Burning
The process of
hydrogen
burning occurs
in the core of
stars
It is also
called ‘proton-
proton fusion.”
It consists of
3 steps.
It requires
temperature of
10 million K or
STEP 1 : Proton – Proton
Fusion
Fusion: the
combining of 2
or more atoms
to create a
new, larger 1
atom
1
H +
Hydrogen
+ 2
burning, or H
proton-proton 1
n 1
fusion, occurs 1
H +
in main
sequence
stars.
Forms a
STEP 2 : Deuterium - Hydrogen
Deuterium Fusion
nucleus
combines +
2
with a
regular 1
H n 3 +
Hydrogen 2 He +
nucleus n
1
Forms a 1H +
Helium-3
nucleus:
Atomic
number: 2
Step 3 : ALP H A PARTICLE
FORMATION
Two Helium-3
nuclei +
combine to 3
form a He + 4
+
2 He
Helium-4 2 n
nucleus
+
n +
The Helium-4
3 + n
nucleus:
2 He +
n
Atomic
number: 2 +
Atomic mass:
ALPHA PARTICLE
INTRODUCTION IN THE
FORMATION OF HEAVIER
ELEMENTS
STELLAR
EVOLUTION
Main Sequence
Stars derive their
energy from
hydrogen fusion.
Red Giants
generate their
energy through
helium (alpha
particle) fusion.
RED GIANTS
As a star uses up its
hydrogen, helium
accumulates in its
core, and will
eventually burn.
The remaining
hydrogen continues
to burn in a shell
around the core
The hydrogen-shell
burning increases the
thermal pressure,
which causes the star
to expand into a Red
STEP 1: BERYLLIUM
FORMATION
The fusion of He-4
(alpha particles) is
also called alpha
fusion.
In a triple-alpha
process, typical of
many red giants, the
helium atoms
combine to form
carbon.
In the first step, two
alpha particles
combine to make
STEP 2: C – 12
FORMATION
In the second
step of the
triple-alpha
process, one
alpha particles
combines with
the Be-8
nucleus to form
a C-12 nucleus
(A= 12; Z= 6)
More massive stars
(>5 solar masses) can
SUPER GIANT
evolve to become
Super Giants. STARS
These are important
in the synthesis of
heavier elements up
to iron (Fe).
In these stars, alpha
fusion continues past
the triple-alpha
process. This forms a
chain of alpha
processes that result
in subsequently
heavier nuclei.
CHAIN OF ALPHA
PROCESSES
This chain of Alpha 12 C + 4 He → 16 O CARBON BURNING
Processes is also 16 O + 4 He → 20 Ne OXYGEN BURNING
termed the alpha
ladder.
20 Ne + 4 He → 24 Mg
24 Mg + 4 He → 28 Si
In this, an alpha particle
is added to an atomic 24 Si + 4 He → 32 S SILICON BURNING
nucleus (such as 32 S + 4 He → 36 Ar
carbon) to form 36 Ar + 4 He → 40 Ca
oxygen.
40 Ca + 4 He → 44 Ti
The addition of an
alpha particle to an
44 Ti + 4 He → 48 Cr
atom adds 2 protons 48 Cr + 4 He → 52 Fe
(and therefore the
atomic number of the
FORMATION OF ODD
ELEMENTS
Odd elements are not formed through the alpha ladder in stars.
The Oddo-Harkins rule states that even numbered elements are inherently
more stable (and therefore more common) than odd elements.
Odd elements can be formed during the Big Bang, radioactive decay or
supernova nucleosynthesis.
CONCLUSIO
During a star’s
lifetime, it burns
heavier and heavier
NS
elements.
Heavier elements
burn faster
(see table on right)
When it accumulates
Fe in the core and
can no longer
maintain a balance
of temperature and
pressure, the star
will undergo core
collapse
SUMMARY
After hydrogen fusion, larger stars can continue with
the fusion of heavier elements.
Red Giants can fuse helium and form carbon (triple-
alpha process).
Super Giant Stars can form elements from later steps
of alpha fusion.
The alpha ladder can form the even elements lighter
than iron.
The odd elements can be formed in supernova or
through nuclear decay.
Even elements are more common than odd
elements.
After a star is exhausted of energy, its core will
consist of Fe (and outer shells of lighter elements).
FORMATION OF HEAVIER
ELEMENTS
An explanation of how
elements heavier than
Fe are produced in
supernovae
PERIODIC
TABLE The periodic table
is used to
organize the
chemical elements
by their atomic
number
Atomic number:
sum of protons.
Atomic Mass: sum
of the protons
and neutrons.
The origin of the
elements is in
stars and
supernova, as
explained in
ISOTOPES
Isotopes are atoms of
the same atomic
number, but different
atomic mass.
This is because they
have a different
number of neutrons.