One of the basic laws of electricity states that anytime a current

flows through a conductor a magnetic field is created around the

conductor. These lines of magnetism are referred to as lines of flux.
The strength of a magnetic is determined by its flux density. Flux
density is the number of magnetic lines contained in a square inch.
Electromagnets are generally
made by winding wire around
a magnetic core material
such as iron or soft steel. The
strength of the
electromagnet is determined
by two factors:
1. The amount of current
flow
2. The length of the
conductor, generally stated
as the number of turns of
wire.
These two factors are called
the ampere-turns.
The direction of current flow
determines the polarity of
the magnet. The left hand
rule can be employed to
determine the magnetic
polarity. If the fingers of the
left hand are wrapped
around the coil in the
direction of current flow, the
thumb will point to the north
magnetic polarity.
If the direction of
current flow is reversed,
the polarity of the
magnetic will change.
Another electrical
principle states that
anytime a conductor
is cut by lines of
magnetic flux, a
voltage will be
induced into the
conductor. The
polarity of the
magnetic field and
the direction of the
cutting action
determine the
polarity of the
induced voltage.
If the direction of
movement is
reversed, the
polarity of the
induced voltage
will reverse also.
If the polarity of
the magnetic
field is reversed
with respect to
the direction of
movement, it will
also cause the
polarity of the
induced voltage
to reverse.
The amount of induced voltage is determined by three
factors:
1. The strength of the magnetic field. (Flux Density)
2. The length of the conductor or number of turns of wire.
3. The speed of the cutting action between the magnetic
field and the conductor.
A common magnetic measurement is the Weber. One
Weber equals 100,000,000 lines of magnetic flux. One
volt will be induced into a conductor when it is cut by
magnetic lines of flux at a rate of one Weber per second.
When a source of direct current is connected to a resistive
load, the current will rise to its Ohm’s Law value almost
instantly. The only limiting factor is the amount of inductance in
the conductors
supplying the load
and the inductance
of the load itself.
If a source of direct current is connected to an inductor, such as
a coil of wire, the current cannot rise instantly to its Ohm’s Law
value. The current rises at an exponential rate.
When current tries to
rise to its Ohm’s Law
value, it causes a
magnetic field to expand
around the coil. This
expanding or moving
magnetic field cuts
through the conductors
that form the coil
inducing a voltage into
them. In accord with
Lenz’s Law, the voltage
induced into the coil by
the moving magnetic
field will be opposite in
polarity to the voltage
that creates it.
Since the induced
voltage is opposite in
polarity to the applied
voltage, it hinders the
rise of current
through the inductor.
This opposite or
counter voltage acts
like resistance to the
increase of current.
The exponential curve is found throughout nature. Clothes
hung on a line to dry for instance, will dry at an exponential rate.
An exponential curve is a rate at which something occurs.
Exponential curves are divided into 5 time constants. Each
time constant is equal to 63.2% of some value. In this
example, a bucket has been filled with water to a certain level.
A hole is then drilled into the bucket that permits the water to
drain from the bucket. It will be assumed that it takes 5
minutes for the water to drain from the bucket. Since an
exponential curve is divided
into 5 time constants, each
time constant in this
example is 1 minute long.
Now assume that a plug is placed in the hole and the bucket is
refilled with water back to the original level.
Now assume that the plug is removed and the water is
permitted to drain for exactly 1 minute and then replaced. One
minute is the length of 1 time constant. It will be seen that
63.2% of the water has been drained from the bucket.
If the plug is removed a second time and the water allowed to
drain for another minute before the plug is replaced, 63.2% of
the water that remained in the bucket will be lost.
If the water is again permitted to drain from the bucket for a
period of 1 minute, it will be seen that 63.2% of the water that
remained in the bucket will again be lost. In theory, it is not
possible to ever drain all the water from the bucket by loosing
63.2% each time constant, but after 5 time constants over 99%
of the water has been drained and the bucket is considered
empty.
This same process
occurs when
current rises in an
inductor. As stated
previously, the
current in an
inductor will rise at
an exponential rate.
In this example it is
assumed that the
current has an
Ohm’s Law value of
20 amperes.
During the first
time constant the
current will rise to
a value that is
63.2% of the total
value or 12.64
amps. (20 x
0.632 = 12.64)
At the end of the
second time constant,
the current has risen
to 17.29 amps.

(20 – 12.64 = 7.36)

(7.36 x 0.632 = 4.65)
(4.65 + 12.64 = 17.29)
At the end of the third
time constant the
current has risen to
19 amps.

(20 – 17.29 = 2.17)

(2.71 x 0.632 = 1.71)
17.29 + 1.71 = 19
Amps)
The current rises to
a value of 19.632
Amps by the end of
the fourth time
constant.

(20 – 19 = 1)
(1 x 0.632 = 0.632)
19 + 0.632 = 19.632)
At the end of the fifth time
constant, the current has
risen to a value of 19.856
Amps.

(20 – 19.632 = 0.368)

(0.368 x 0.632 = 0.233)
(19.632 + 0.233 = 19.865)

Although the current has

not reached the total
Ohm’s Law value of 20
Amps, it is within 99% of
the total value.

(19.865 / 20 = 0.993 or
99.3%)
The unit of inductance is the Henry and is symbolized by the
letter L. A coil has an inductance of one Henry when a current
change of one ampere per second results in an induced
voltage of 1 volt. There are several factors that determine the
amount of inductance of a coil. One is the type core material.
Coils wound on a non-magnetic material are called Air Core
inductors. Coils wound on magnetic material such as iron or
soft steel are called Iron
Core inductors. Another
factor is how far apart the
conductors are wound
around the core material.
The closer the conductors
are to each other the more
inductance the coil will
exhibit.
The inductance of a coil can be determined using the formula:

0.4N A 2
L
l
L = inductance in Henrys
π = 3.1416
N = Number of turns of wire
µ = Permeability of the core material
A = Cross-sectional area of the core
l = length of the core
If the inductance and the ohmic resistance of a coil are know,
the time of one time constant can be determined using the
formula:

L
T
R

T = time in seconds
L = inductance in Henrys
R = resistance in ohms.
Example 1: A coil has an ohmic resistance of 4 ohms and an
inductance of 0.5 Henry. How long will it take the current to
reach its full Ohm’s Law value?

Solution:

L 0.5
T T T  2 sec onds
R 4

The time of one time constant is 2 seconds. It requires 5 time

constants for the current to reach its fill Ohm’s Law value.
Therefore it will require 10 seconds for the current to reach full
value. (2 x 5 = 10)