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CHAPTER 7

SOIL
FORMATION

1
LEARNING OUTCOME (CO2:PO1)

LO

Understand the definition To understand the


of soil and its origin and formation of soil and the
composition of soil soil profile

2
‘Soil is a natural body comprised of solids (minerals and
organic matter), liquid, and gases that occurs on the land
surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one or
both of the following: horizons, or layers, that are
distinguishable from the initial material as a result of
additions, losses, transfers, and transformations of energy
and matter or the ability to support rooted plants in a
natural environment.’

Soil Taxonomy, second edition.


 is a natural body comprised of solids (mineral &
organic matter),liquid and gasses that occurs on the
land surface.
 @ combination of mineral and organic matter, water
and air-that portion of the regolith that supports the
growth of plants.

 Is considered as a naturally (mostly) occuring


particulate material or variable composition having
properties of compressibility, permeability and
strength.
• SOIL MECHANICS
• Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the
study of the physical properties of soil and the behavior of soil
masses subjected to various types of force (Das, 1997)

• SOIL ENGINEERING
• Soil engineering is the application of the principles of the soil
mechanics to practical problems (Das, 1997).
• The publication of “erdbaumechanik” by Karl Terzaghi (1925)
“father of soil mechanics” gave birth to modern soil mechanics
which include fundamental principles of soil mechanics on
which advance studies are made.
 Soil is a combination of mineral and organic
matter, water, and air

 Results from weathering


 Regolith: rock and mineral fragments
produced by weathering (weathered debris)
 Soil supports the growth of plants
 Good soil: mix of decomposed rock and
humus (decay plant and animal)
A combination of mineral and organic matter, water, and air.
• Mineral (rocks), and Humus (organic) = 50%
• Pore space for Air and Water circulation = 50%
Parent material (solid rock) undergoes weathering to become
regolith (soil + saprolite).
Soil is a mixture of mineral and organic matter lacking any inherited
rock structure.

Soil
Saprolite is weathered rock that retains remnant rock structure.

Saprolite
5 factors that influence soil formation:
 (i) Parent material
 Few soils weather directly from the underlying rocks.
 These "residual" soils have the same general
chemistry as the original rocks.
 More commonly, soils form in materials that have
moved in from elsewhere.
Residual soil: parent material is the underlying
bedrock
Transported soil: forms in place on parent material
that has been carried from elsewhere and
deposited.
• (ii) Time

– Important in all geologic processes.


– Time for soil formation varies depending on geologic
and climatic conditions
– Development and destruction of soil horizons
– The reaction rates are slow, the longer a rock unit
has been exposed, the more likely it is to be
weathered.
– Time for all these factors to interact with the soil is
also a factor.
 (iii) Climate
 Most influential control of soil formation
 Key factors: temperature and precipitation
 The greater the rainfall amount, the more rapid the
rate of erosion and leaching.
 Soils vary, depending on the climate. Temperature
and moisture amounts cause different patterns of
weathering and leaching.
 Wind redistributes sand and other particles especially
in arid regions.
 The amount, intensity, timing, and kind of precipitation
influence soil formation.
 Seasonal and daily changes in temperature affect
moisture effectiveness, biological activity, rates of
chemical reactions, and kinds of vegetation.
• (iv) Plants and animals
– Organisms influence the soil’s physical and
chemical properties
– Also furnish organic matter to the soil
– Weathering is dependent of plant growth
– Plant and animal activity produces humic acids
that are powerful erosion agents.
– Plants can physically erode as well as chemically
erode.
– Plants stabilize soil profiles, Animals (including
humans) tend to increase erosion.
(v) Slope/Topography
 Steep slopes often have poorly developed soils. Two
major factor:
• Elevation

• Aspect (e.g., north facing vs. south facing


slopes)
 The steeper the surface slope, the more likely any
eroded material is to be transported out of the system.
 Slope and aspect affect the moisture and temperature
of soil. Steep slopes facing the sun are warmer, just
like the south-facing side of a house.
 Thus, Steep soils may be eroded and lose their topsoil
as they form.
(i) O horizon – organic matter
(ii) A horizon – organic and mineral matter
 High biological activity
 O and A horizons together make up the topsoil

(iii) E horizon – little organic matter


 Zone of eluviation and leaching
 The O, A, E, and B horizons together are called
the solum (“true soil”)
(iv) B horizon – zone of accumulation
(v) C horizon – partially altered parent material
O Organic
Animal Activity
A

Soluble minerals Exited


E

B Soluble Minerals Back

C Crushed Rock
Soil Types

•Pedalfer = Soil + Aluminum + Iron

•Pedocal = Soil + Calcite (calcium carbonate)

•Laterite = Soil developed in hot, wet climates.


PEDALFER
• Accumulation of iron oxides and Al-rich clays in the B horizon.
• Best developed under temperate forest landscapes (humid
climate)

PEDOCAL
• Rich in white calcium carbonate (caliche) in B horizon
• Form in arid climate
• Associated with dry grasslands and brush vegetation
LATERITE

• These soil have been depleted of nearly all


elements except iron and aluminium oxides
• Derived from weathering of basalt
• Hot and wet tropical climates
• Monsoonal Climate (with very high rainfall)
• Deep soil but usable nutrients shallow
Pedalfer Pedocol Laterite

Humid Arid Tropical


pedalfer pedocal laterite

Evergreen forests Shortgrass tropics

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