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Electrical Circuit (Part I)

(DIRECT CURRENT ANALYSIS)


EE Correlation
June 26, 2018
4:00 – 5:30 PM
Dr. Alberto A. Java
Professor
Circuit Theory
• Circuit theory is the basis upon which many
branches of electrical engineering rests.
• For electrical engineering technology
education, circuit theory is the single most
important course taken.
• Virtually anything that is either plugged into a
wall outlet or runs off a battery can be
analyzed with circuit theory.

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What is a circuit?
• An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.
• It may consist of only two elements or many more.

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Units
• When taking measurements,
we must use units to quantify
values
• We use the International
Systems of Units (SI for short)
• Prefixes on SI units allow for
easy relationships between
large and small values

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SI Units
• Any measurement that is made must be
compared to a standard reference.
• This reference is called a ‘unit’ such as
kilograms or feet.
• Units are found everywhere and are collected
together in sets.
• The set that is recognized and used across the
world is the International System (SI).

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SI Units II

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Converting Units
• Despite the universally adopted SI units, other
sets of units exist.
• One often needs to change a measured value
from one set of units to another.
• This is done by multiplying or dividing by a
“conversion factor.”
• An example of this is that there are 60 seconds
in a minute.

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Converting Units II
• Let’s take an example of a time measured to
be 30 seconds.
• In this case, we have a conversion factor of 60
seconds per minute.
• We need the seconds units to cancel,
therefore we divide by the factor:
1min
30sec � = 0.5min
60sec

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DC NETWORK ANALYSIS

•A circuit is an unbroken loop of conductive material that


allows electrons to flow through continuously without
beginning or end.
•If a circuit is "broken," that means it's conductive
elements no longer form a complete path, and continuous
electron flow cannot occur in it.
•The location of a break in a circuit is irrelevant to its
inability to sustain continuous electron flow. Any break,
anywhere in a circuit prevents electron flow throughout
the circuit.
DC NETWORK ANALYSIS
 An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical
elements.
 Component of the circuit is known as an element.
•Types of Elements:
•Resistors Inductors Capacitors
Electric current is the time rate of change of charge,
measured in amperes (A). 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second
A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant
with time.
Voltage or potential difference and Power
The voltage vab between two points a and b in an
electric circuit is the energy (or work) needed to move a
unit charge from a to b.

1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton meter/coulomb


Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy
required to move a unit charge through an element,
measured in volts (V).
Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing
energy, measured in watts (W).
where p is power in watts (W), w is energy
in joules (J), and t is time in seconds (s).
or where: v is the voltage, in volt
I is the current, in ampere

In fact, the law of conservation of energy must


be obeyed in any electric circuit. For this reason,
the algebraic sum of power in a circuit,at any
instant of time, must be zero:

Confirms the fact that the total power supplied to


the circuit must balance the total power absorbed.
ENERGY:
Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules ( J).
the energy absorbed or supplied by an element from
time to to time t is

The electric power utility companies measure energy in


watt-hours (Wh), 1 Wh = 3,600 J

CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
There are two types of elements found in electric circuits:
passive elements and active elements.
An active element is capable of generating energy while a
passive element is not.
An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active
element in which the source quantity is controlled by
another voltage or current.

Types of dependent sources:


A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)

A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)

A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)

A current-controlled current source (CCCS)


Resistance is the measure of opposition to electric current.

A short circuit is an electric circuit offering little or no


resistance to the flow of electrons. Short circuits are
dangerous with high voltage power sources because the high
currents encountered can cause large amounts of heat
energy to be released.

An open circuit is one where the continuity has been broken
by an interruption in the path for electrons to flow.

A closed circuit is one that is complete, with good continuity


throughout.
A device designed to open or close a circuit under
controlled conditions is called a switch.

The terms "open" and "closed" refer to switches as well


as entire circuits. An open switch is one without
continuity: electrons cannot flow through it. A closed
switch is one that provides a direct (low resistance) path
for electrons to flow through.
RESISTANCE

2
Circular mil (CM) – area of a circle having a diameter (d) of one mil.

CM = d2 1,000 mil = 1 inch


1MCM = 1,000CM
Material Ρ (Ω-CM/ft) T (oC) α at 20oC
Silver 9.9 243 0.00380
Copper 10.37 234.5 0.00393
Aluminum 17 236 0.00390
Tungsten 33 202 0.00450
Zinc 36 250 0.00370

CONDUCTANCE
Conductance is a measure of the material’s ability to conduct
electric current.
- it is equal to the reciprocal of reistance
Siemens (formerly mho) – unit of conductance
- named after the German engineer
Ernst Werner von Siemens ( 1816 – 1892 )
OHM's LAW

Voltage measured in volts, symbolized by the letters "E" or "V".


Current measured in amps, symbolized by the letter "I".
Resistance measured in ohms, symbolized by the letter "R".
Ohm's Law: E = IR ; I = E/R ; R = E/I
Power measured in watts, symbolized by the letter "W“.
Joule's Law: P = I2R ; P = IE ; P = E2/R
Devices called resistors are built to provide precise
amounts of resistance in electric circuits. Resistors are rated
both in terms of their resistance (ohms) and their ability to
dissipate heat energy (watts).

Resistor resistance ratings cannot be determined from the


physical size of the resistor(s) in question, although
approximate power ratings can. The larger the resistor is,
the more power it can safely dissipate without suffering
damage.
Any device that performs some useful task
with electric power is generally known
as a load. Sometimes resistor symbols
are used in schematic diagrams to
designate a non-specific load, rather
than an actual resistor.
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) tells us that the
algebraic sum of currents entering and exiting a node
must equal zero.
where N is the number of branches connected to the
node and in is the nth current entering (or leaving) the
node

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the


algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path(or
loop) is zero.
Where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the
number of branches in the loop) and vm is the mth
voltage.
Branch current method
Steps to follow for the "Branch Current" method of
analysis:
(1) Choose a node and assume directions of currents.
(2) Write a KCL equation relating currents at the node.
(3) Label resistor voltage drop polarities based on
assumed currents.
(4) Write KVL equations for each loop of the circuit,
substituting the product IR for E in each resistor term
of the equations.
(5) Solve for unknown branch currents (simultaneous
equations).
(6) If any solution is negative, then the assumed direction
of current for that solution is wrong!
(7) Solve for voltage drops across all resistors (E=IR).
EXAMPLE
.
Mesh current method
The Mesh Current Method is quite similar to the Branch Current
method in that it uses simultaneous equations, Kirchhoff's
Voltage Law, and Ohm's Law to determine unknown currents in a
network.
Steps to follow for the "Mesh Current" method of analysis:
(1) Draw mesh currents in loops of circuit, enough to account for all
components.
(2) Label resistor voltage drop polarities based on assumed
directions of mesh currents.
(3) Write KVL equations for each loop of the circuit, substituting the
product IR for E in each resistor term of the equation. Where
two mesh currents intersect through a component, express
the current as the algebraic sum of those two mesh currents
(i.e. I1 + I2) if the currents go in the same direction through
that component. If not, express the current as the difference
(i.e. I1 - I2).
(4) Solve for unknown mesh currents (simultaneous equations).
(5) If any solution is negative, then the assumed current direction is
wrong!
(6) Algebraically add mesh currents to find current in components
sharing multiple mesh currents.
(7) Solve for voltage drops across all resistors (E=IR).
NODAL ANALYSIS
Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for
analyzing circuits using node voltages as the circuit
variables.
Choosing node voltages instead of element voltages as
circuit variables is convenient and reduces the
number of equations one must solve simultaneously.
S t e p s t o D e t e r m i n e Node V o l t a g e s :
1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1,
v2, . . . , vn−1 to the remaining n − 1 nodes. The
voltages are referenced with respect to the
reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the n − 1 nonreference nodes. Use
Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in terms of
node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the
unknown node voltages.
EXAMPLE

Find VR2.
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK
THEOREMS
Millman's Theorem
In Millman's Theorem, the circuit is re-drawn as a
parallel network of branches, each branch containing a
resistor or series battery/resistor combination. Millman's
Theorem is applicable only to those circuits which can be
re-drawn accordingly.
Millman's Theorem is nothing more than a long equation,
applied to any circuit drawn as a set of parallel-connected
branches, each branch with its own voltage source and
series resistance:
To solve for branch currents,
each resistor voltage drop can
be divided by its respective
resistance (I=E/R):

Millman's Theorem treats


circuits as a parallel set
of series-component
branches.
All voltages entered and
solved for in Millman's
Theorem are polarity-
referenced at the same point
in the circuit (typically the
bottom wire of the parallel
network).
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
A source transformation is the process of replacing a
voltage source vs in series with a resistor R by a current
source is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.

Transformation of independent sources.


Example: Use source transformation to determine the
current and power in the 8-Ω resistor.

Answers: I = 1A
P = 8 watts
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
The Superposition Theorem states that a circuit can be
analyzed with only one source of power at a time, the
corresponding component voltages and currents
algebraically added to find out what they'll do with all
power sources in effect.

To negate all but one power source for analysis, replace
any source of voltage (batteries) with a wire; replace any
current source with an open (break).
Example

One for the circuit with only the One for the circuit with only the
28 volt battery in effect. . . 7 volt battery in effect. . .
Example 2. Use superposition to find vo
in the circuit

Answer: vo = 7 volts
THEVENIN'S THEOREM
Thevenin's Theorem states that it is possible to simplify
any linear circuit, no matter how complex, to an
equivalent circuit with just a single voltage source and
series resistance connected to a load.

The qualification of "linear" is identical to that found in the


Superposition Theorem, where all the underlying
equations must be linear (no exponents or roots).

Thevenin's Theorem is a way to reduce a network to an


equivalent circuit composed of a single voltage source,
series resistance, and series load.
Steps to follow for Thevenin's Theorem:
(1)Find the Thevenin source voltage by removing the load
resistor from the original circuit and calculating voltage
across the open connection points where the load resistor
used to be.
(2) Find the Thevenin resistance by removing all power sources
in the original circuit (voltage sources shorted and
current sources open) and calculating total resistance between
the open connection points.
(3) Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit, with the Thevenin
voltage source in series with the Thevenin resistance. The load
resistor re-attaches between the two open points of the
equivalent circuit.
(4) Analyze voltage and current for the load resistor following
the rules for series circuits.
EXAMPLE

. . . after Thevenin conversion . . .


Applying the rules of series circuits, Ohm's Law,
and Kirchhoff's Voltage Law:

Determine VTH: Determine RTH:


Apply Thèvenin's theorem to find Vo in the circuit

Answer:
NORTON'S THEOREM
Norton's Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any
linear circuit, no matter how complex, to an equivalent circuit
with just a single current source and parallel resistance
connected to a load.

Just as with Thevenin's Theorem, the qualification of "linear"


is identical to that found in the Superposition Theorem: all
underlying equations must be linear (no exponents or roots).
. . . after Norton conversion . . .
Norton's Theorem is a way to reduce a network to an
equivalent circuit composed of a single current source, parallel
resistance, and parallel load.
Steps to follow for Norton's Theorem:
(1) Find the Norton source current by removing the load
resistor from the original circuit and calculating current
through a short (wire) jumping across the open connection
points where the load resistor used to be.
(2) Find the Norton resistance by removing all power sources
in the original circuit (voltage sources shorted and
current sources open) and calculating total resistance between
the open connection points.
(3) Draw the Norton equivalent circuit, with the Norton current
source in parallel with the Norton resistance. The load
resistor re-attaches between the two open points of the
equivalent circuit.
(4) Analyze voltage and current for the load resistor following
the rules for parallel circuits.
we can analyze the Norton
circuit as a simple parallel
arrangement:
Obtain the Thevenin equivalent at terminals a-b.

Answer:
THEVENIN-NORTON EQUIVALENCIES
Thevenin and Norton resistances are equal.

Thevenin voltage is equal to Norton current times Norton


resistance.

Norton current is equal to Thevenin voltage divided by


Thevenin resistance.
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
THEOREM
The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is not so much a
means of analysis as it is an aid to system design.
Simply stated, the maximum amount of power will be
dissipated by a load resistance when that load resistance is
equal to the Thevenin/Norton resistance of the network
supplying the power.
If the load resistance is lower or higher than the
Thevenin/Norton resistance of the source network, its
dissipated power will be less than maximum. The Maximum
Power Transfer Theorem states that the maximum amount of
power will be dissipated by a load resistance if it is equal to
the Thevenin or Norton resistance of the network supplying
power.
This is essentially what is aimed for in stereo system
design, where speaker "impedance" is matched to amplifier
"impedance" for maximum sound power output.

Impedance, the overall opposition to AC and DC current,


is very similar to resistance, and must be equal between
source and load for the greatest amount of power to be
transferred to the load.

A load impedance that is too high will result in low power


output.

A load impedance that is too low will not only result in low
power output, but possibly overheating of the amplifier due
to the power dissipated in its internal (Thevenin or Norton)
impedance.
Example: The variable resistor R is adjusted
until it absorbs the maximum power from the
circuit. (a) Calculate the value of R for
maximum power. (b) Determine the maximum
power absorbed by R.
RTh :
VTh :
Δ-Y AND Y-Δ CONVERSIONS
In many circuit applications, we encounter components
connected together in one of two ways to form a three-
terminal network: the "Delta," or Δ (also known as the "Pi," or
π) configuration, and the "Y" (also known as the "T")
configuration.
For identical resistances:

RY = R∆/3 R∆ = 3 RY
Calculate Io in the circuit

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