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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS
CONTROL
LECTURE OUTLINE
4
Why MUST Have A Process Control Course?
5
WATER LEVEL W/O PC
Qo
IMPACTs:
V1 V2
1. OVERFLOW Qin = Q out
2. RUN-DRIED from SUPPLIER TANK
3. FLOODING DRAWN
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WATER LEVEL WITH PC (MANUAL)
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WATER LEVEL WITH PC (AUTO)
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5 CONTROL OBJECTIVES
1. SAFETY
Safe operation – primary requirement.
Operating Pressure, Temperatures, Concentration, Flow rate within the
limits.
Eg: If the reactor – P designated up to 100psig – MUST control the system
– maintain the P.
2. PRODUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
Production – at desired amounts – with quality.
Eg: To ensure – production 2000kg ethylene – 99.5% purification MUST
BE SATISFIED
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5 CONTROL OBJECTIVES
3. ENVIRONMETAL REGULATIONS
Effluents from a plant – within the limits
Eg: COD of Section A* allowed – 100ppm.
4. OPERATIONAL CONSTRAINTS
Every equipment – have constraints
Eg: Tanks should not overflow / go dry
Eg: T in catalytic reactor - NOT EXCEED an upper limit –destroyed the
catalyst.
5. ECONOMY
The operation – conform the market condition.
Operating condition – are controlled – at optimum levels of –MINIMUM
operating cost – MAXIMUM profit cost – LESS usage of energy.
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CLASSIFICATION of VARIABLE
1. INPUT VARIABLE
• Manipulated – values can be adjusted freely
by control mechanism (Fst & F)
• Disturbances @ Load Variable– values are
not the result of adjustment by control
mechanisms (Fi & Ti)
2. OUTPUT VARIABLE
• Measured @ Controlled– values are known
by direct measurement (F & T)
• Unmeasured – cannot be measured directly
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CLASSIFICATION of VARIABLE
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4 BASIC ELEMENTS in PC
The control systems appear to have 4 basic elements.
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BASIC ELEMENTS in PC
Let’s look at a few examples first. Then, we will develop a general concept.
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BLOCK DIAGRAM
1. A convenient representation of the flow of quantitative and qualitative
information around the feedback control loop.
2. FUNCTION:
Indicate the relationship between the process variables.
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BLOCK DIAGRAM
TYPE OF CONTROLLERs:
1. Proportional 3 PROCESS/
2. Proportional – Integral 1
SYSTEM
3. Proportional – Derivative
4. Proportional – Integral - Derivative
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MEASUREMENT DEVICES
SENSORS +
TRANSMITTER
= TRANSDUCER
TRANSDUCER
TRANSDUCERS
convert the magnitude of a process variable (flow rate, pressure, temperature,
level, or concentration) into a signal that can be sent directly to the controller
i.e. mechanical signal from sensor converted to electrical signal (i.e. digital
signal) by transmitter then transmitted to controller.
“convert physical quantities signal to electrical output signal
(mechanical/pneumatic signal to electrical signal)”
Normally, analog signal from sensors (4 – 20 mA) current corresponds to (3 –
19
15 psig) pressure [current-to-pressure converter I/P Converter]
ACTUATOR/VALVE
FINAL CONTROL
ELEMENTS
ACTUATOR
ASSEMBLY
1. The actuator provides the
force necessary to change
the valve stem position –
alter the flow rate through
valve.
2. E.g.: the size of the
opening for flow (position of
valve stem)
3. The most common actuator
is a pneumatic diaphragm
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PNEUMATIC CONTROL VALVE
2. is selected to
achieve the
desired fluid flow
behavior.
21 23
Valve Body: The valve body to the fluid type and process needs?
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VALVES: What are important features for Process Control?
Capacity = The maximum flow rate through the flow system (pipes,
valves, and process equipment) must meet operating requirements.
Range = The range indicates the extent of flow values that the valve can
reliably regulate; very small and large flows cannot be maintained at
desired values. Range is reported as ratio of largest to smallest.
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24
CONTROLLER
1. PROPORTIONAL
2. PROPORTIONAL – INTEGRAL
3. PROPORTIONAL – DERIVATIVE
4. PROPORTIONAL – INTEGRAL -
DERIVATIVE
BASIC CONTROL MODES
Next we consider the three basic control modes starting with the simplest mode,
proportional control.
and
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Proportional Control
Although Eq. 8-1 indicates that the set point can be time-varying, in many process
control problems it is kept constant for long periods of time.
For proportional control, the controller output is proportional to the error signal,
where:
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Proportional Control
29
The key concepts behind proportional control are the following:
1. The controller gain, Kc can be adjusted to make the controller output changes as
sensitive as desired to deviations between set point and controlled variable;
2. the sign of Kc can be chosen to make the controller output increase (or decrease) as
the error signal increases.
p' ( t ) = p ( t ) - p (8-4)
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Integral Control
For integral control action, the controller output depends on the integral of the error signal over
time,
1 t
p (t ) = p + ò e( t *) dt * (8-7)
tI 0
where τI , an adjustable parameter referred to as the integral time or reset time, has units of time.
Integral control action is widely used; the elimination of offset (remaining error).
In conjunction with proportional control as the proportional-integral (PI) controller:
æ 1 t ö
p (t ) = p + Kc ç e( t ) + ò0 e(t *) dt *÷ø (8-8)
è t I
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Integral Control
The corresponding transfer function for the PI controller in Eq. 8-8 is given by
P '( s ) æ 1 ö æ t I s +1ö
= K c ç 1+ ÷ = Kc ç
E ( s) è tIsø è t I s ÷ø (8-9)
Some commercial controllers are calibrated in terms of 1/τI (repeats per minute)
rather than τI (minutes, or minutes per repeat).
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Proportional-Integral (PI) Control
P '( s ) æ 1 ö æ t I s +1ö
= K c ç 1+ ÷ = Kc ç
E ( s) è tIsø è t I s ÷ø
• Response to unit step change in e:
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Proportional-Integral (PI) Control
• Integral action eliminates steady-state error (i.e., offset)
When e 0, the controller output, p(t) changes with time until e = 0, where p
(t) reaches steady state.
1. Reset/Integral windup occurs when integral term accumulates due to limitation in
process conditions (e.g. control valve) - fully opened/fully closed. (normally when set-point
is changed)
2. Error is process have not been fully eliminated and the fact that control valve is saturated
makes the integral term accumulated and becomes very large.
35
Derivative Control
The function of derivative control action is to anticipate the future
behavior of the error signal by considering its rate of change.
de ( t )
p (t ) = p + t D (8-10)
dt
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Derivative Control
where t D , the derivative time, has units of time.
For example, an ideal PD controller has the transfer function:
P '( s )
= K c (1+ t D s )
E ( s)
(8-11)
37
PID Controller Responses
P?
PI?
PID?
38
Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control
é 1 t de ( t ) ù
p ( t ) = p + Kc êe( t ) + ò0 e(t *) dt * +t D dt úû
tI
(8-12)
ë
38
Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control
The corresponding transfer function is:
P '( s ) é 1 ù
= K c ê1+ + t Dsú (8-13)
E ( s) ë tIs û
P '( s ) æ t I s +1ö æ t D s +1 ö
= Kc ç
E ( s) è t I s ÷ø çè at D s +1÷ø
(8-15)
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Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control
• DISADVANTAGE: a sudden change in set point (and hence the error, e) will cause the
derivative term momentarily to become very large and thus provide a derivative kick to
the final control element.
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A block diagram of a PID controller
41
Automatic and Manual Control Modes
Automatic Mode
45
Transfer Function: describe the effect that changes in
system input have on system output in the Laplace domain.
Transfer functions are of the general form:
where G(s) is the transform function, and Y(s) and U(s) are
the Laplace transforms of the output and input variables
respectively.
For example, Take Y(s) to be the Outlet Temperature of a
Process Stream and U(s) to be Input Flow Rate into a
CSTR, G(s) would relate the Outlet Temperature to the
Input Flow Rate in the Laplace domain. 46
Laplace Transform
47
Laplace Transform
f (t ) 0
L f (t ) e st dt F ( s)
sY(s) - y(0) =
Y(s) = H(s)
F(s,Y)
Laplace Domain
Time Domain
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WORKING SESSION
For the following automatic control systems commonly encountered in
daily life, identify the devices that perform:
1. the measurement (M),
2. decision (D),
3. and actuators (A).
Also draw a process and instrumentation diagram (P&ID), using the
standard ISA symbols, and determine whether the control is feedback
or feedforward.