Signals

Signal – any physical quantity that varies with time, space or any other independent
variable/s.

ex. 1. ) 𝑠1 𝑡 = 5𝑡
2.) 𝑠2 𝑡 = 20𝑡 3
3.) 𝑠1 𝑡 = 3𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 10𝑦 2
4.) speech signal - represented by sum of general sinusoids of different amplitudes
frequencies
σ𝑁𝑖=1 𝐴𝑖 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝐹𝑖 𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 (𝑡)

where
𝐴𝑖 𝑡 - sets of amplitude
𝐹𝑖 𝑡 -sets of frequencies
𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) –sets of phase
5.) ECG – Electrocardiogram (heart)
6.) EEG – Electroencephalogram (heart)
Kinds of Signals according to Variables:
1. Function of single independent variables
ex. Time  speech, ECG, EEG
2. Function of 2 independent variables
ex. Spatial coordinates, x & y such as image

How to generate signals:

1. Natural – system that responds to a stimulus or a force

ex. a) speech by forcing air through vocal cords

b) images by exposing a photographic film to a scene or an object

2. Signal processing – signal passes through a system

2 kinds of systems:
a. Linear
b. nonlinear

System – physical device that performs an operation on a signal

ex. Filter - to reduce noise & interference
Difference between analog signal processing and digital signal processing:

A. analog signal processing – processing directly of analog signals

- purely hardware
- problem is when changes will be made, everything has to be
changed
ex. Filters, frequency analyzers, frequency multipliers, squarer

Analog Analog Analog

Input Signal output
signal processor signal

B. Digital signal processing – analog signals are converted to digital signal first before
processing the digital signal
- can be done in software or hardware
- easy to alter/change since we will only do it in software
Analog Analog
Input A/D Digital D/A
converter Signal output
signal converter signal
processor
B. Digital signal processing – analog signals are converted to digital signal first before
processing the digital signal
- can be done in software or hardware
- easy to alter/change since we will only do it in software

Analog Analog
Input A/D Digital D/A
converter Signal output
signal converter signal
processor
 Classifications of signals:
A. Multichannel and multidimensional signals
ex. 𝑠1 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜋𝑡 - real- valued signal

𝑠2 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗3𝜋𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜋𝑡 + 𝑗𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜋𝑡 - complex-valued signal

For multiple sources/multiple sensors:

ex. Ground acceleration due to an earthquake

3 Basic types of elastic waves:

a. primary wave (P) – longitudinal and transversal
b. secondary (S) - longitudinal and transversal
c. surface wave
 𝑠1 (𝑡) Where 𝑠𝑘 (𝑡) - Multichannel electrical signal from kth sensor
𝑠3 𝑡 = 𝑠2 (𝑡) k =1, 2, 3
𝑠3 (𝑡) p=3

Ex. ECG  3 lead or 12-lead

3 channel or 13 channels
M-dimensional values – value of a signal is function of M independent variables
Ex. Black and white TV – 3 dimensions
- I (x,y,z)
color TV – 3 intensity functions
r, g, b  red, green, blue

𝐼𝑟 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡), 𝐼𝑔 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡), 𝐼𝑏 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡)

𝐼𝑟 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) 3 – channel
𝐼 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑔 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) 3 - dimension
𝐼𝑏 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡)
B. Continuous-Time vs. Discrete-Time Signals
1. Continuous – Time  analog signal
 for every value of time
ex. 𝑥1 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑡
𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑒 − 𝑡 −∞ < 𝑡 < ∞

2. Discrete-Time Signals  defined only at a certain specific values of time

ex. 𝑥 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑒 − 𝑡𝑛 n = 0, ±1, ±2, …

or 𝑥(𝑛)
If 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑛𝑇  equidistant
𝑥 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑥(𝑛𝑇)
0. . 8𝑛 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 ≥ 0
Ex. 𝑥 𝑛 = ቊ
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
2 Methods of Getting Discrete Signals
1. Sampling
 2. By accumulating a variable over a period of time
ex. No. of cars per hour in a given street

C. Continuous-Valued vs. Discrete-Valued Signals

continuous-valued signal  takes on all possible values on a finite or an infinite range
discrete-valued signal  takes on values from a finite set of possible values
 sampled  quantized
D. Deterministic vs. Random Signal

Deterministic – can be uniquely Random – signals area in an unpredictable

described by an explicit mathematical manner
expression, a table of data or a well- ex. Speech signal
defined rule seismic earthquake signal
 Concept of Frequency in Continuous – Time and
in Discrete-Time Signal
Continuous – Time Sinusoidal Signal
Sinusoids
• A general class of signals used for modeling the interaction of signals in
systems, are based on the trigonometric functions sine and cosine

• The general mathematical form of a single sinusoidal signal is

𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ω𝑡 + 𝜃 , ∞ < 𝑡 < −∞

where A = amplitude
Ω = frequency, rad/s
𝜃 = phase, rad
a denotes analog signal

Ω = 2𝜋𝐹 with F  frequency, Hz

then

𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝐹𝑡 + 𝜃 , ∞ < 𝑡 < −∞

Example: 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝐹𝑡 + 𝜃

𝑇𝑝 = 1ൗ𝐹

𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

t
0
 Properties of Analog Sinusoidal Signal:
1. Periodicity

1
𝑥𝑎 𝑡 + 𝑇𝑝 = 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) where 𝑇𝑃 = 𝐹

2. Continuous-time analog signals with distinct frequencies (different) are distinct

3. Increasing the frequency F results in an increase in the rate of oscillations of the

signal
 more periods are included in a given time interval

The sinusoid can also be written in complex exponential signal:

𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑗(Ω𝑡+𝜃)
With
𝑒 ±𝑗𝜙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 ± 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
Since 𝐴 𝐴
𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(Ω𝑡 + 𝜃 ) = 2 𝑒 +𝑗(Ω𝑡+𝜃) + 2 𝑒 −𝑗(Ω𝑡+𝜃)
Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signal

𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑛 + 𝜃 −∞<𝑛 <∞

Where n – sample number

- integer variable
A – amplitude
𝜔 – frequency, radians per sample
𝜃 – phase, radians
When
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
Then 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑓𝑛 + 𝜃 −∞<𝑛 <∞

f – frequency, cycles per sample

Example of a discrete-time sinusoidal

signal
with 𝜔 = 𝜋Τ6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 𝜋Τ3
Properties of discrete-time sinusoids:
1. Periodic – if frequency is a rational number

𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑁 = 𝑥(𝑛) for all n

smallest N  fundamental period

2. Discrete-time sinusoids whose frequencies are separated by an integer

multiple of 2𝜋 are identical

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔0 + 2𝜋 𝑛 + 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑜 𝑛 + 2𝜋𝑛 + 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑜 𝑛 + 𝜃

𝑥𝑘 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑘 𝑛 + 𝜃 k=0,1,2….

𝜔𝑘 = 𝜔0 + 2𝑘𝜋 − 𝜋 ≤ 𝜔𝑜 ≤ 𝜋

𝑥𝑘 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑘 𝑛 + 2𝑘𝜋 + 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑘𝜋 = 0
Then
𝑥𝑘 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑜 𝑛 + 𝜃
3. The highest rate of oscillation in a discrete-time sinusoid is attained when 𝜔 = 𝜋
(or 𝜔 = −𝜋) or, equivalently, f = ½ or f = -1/2

𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0 𝑛

𝑒𝑥. 𝜔0 = 0, 𝜋ൗ8 , 𝜋ൗ4 , 𝜋ൗ2 , 𝜋

since 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝜔
then 𝑓 = 2𝜋0

for 𝜔0 = 𝜋Τ8
𝜋Τ 1
8
𝑓 = 2𝜋(1) = 16

Hence
1 1 1 1
𝑓0 = 0, 16 , 8 , 4 , 2
With periods:
𝑁 = ∞, 16,8,4,2
Consider
𝜔1 = 𝜔0
𝜔2 = 2𝜋 − 𝜔0
𝑥1 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔1 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0 𝑛
𝑥2 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔2 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋 − 𝜔0 𝑛
=𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑛 − 𝜔0 𝑛
=𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠 −𝜔0 𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛 −𝜔0 𝑛
=𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 −𝜔0 𝑛 =𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0 𝑛 = 𝑥1 𝑛

𝜔1 = 𝜔0 if 𝜋 < 𝜔1 < 2𝜋

then 𝜔2 = 2𝜋 − 𝜔0 is an alias of 𝜔1

𝑖𝑓 𝜔1 = 𝜋, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜔0 = 𝜋, 𝜔2 = 2𝜋 − 𝜔0 = 2𝜋 − 𝜋 = 𝜋
if 𝜔1 = 2𝜋, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜔0 = 2𝜋, 𝜔2 = 2𝜋 − 𝜔0 = 2𝜋 − 2𝜋 = 0
 𝐴 𝑗(𝜔 ) 𝐴 −𝑗(𝜔 )
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑛 + 𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑛+𝜃 + 𝑒 𝑛+𝜃
2 2
Fundamental range:
0 < 𝜔 < 2𝜋 or -𝜋<𝜔 <𝜋
−1 1
0<𝑓<1 or < 𝑓 <
2 2

Harmonically Related Complex Exponentials

Continuous-time exponentials

𝑠𝑘 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗𝑘Ω0𝑡 = 𝑒 𝐽2𝜋𝑘𝐹0𝑡 k= 0, ±1, ±2, …

Ω0 = 2𝜋𝐹𝑜 1 𝑇𝑝
Fundamental period = 𝑘𝐹 =
𝑜 𝑘

Fundamental frequency = 𝑘𝐹𝑜

Fourier Series expansion of 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡):

𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = σ∞ ∞
𝑘=−∞ 𝑐𝑘 𝑠𝑘 𝑡 = σ𝑘=−∞ 𝑐𝑘 𝑒
𝑗𝑘Ω0 𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑘 , 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, … are constant
Discrete-Time Exponentials

𝑠𝑘 𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑘𝑓0𝑛 k= 0, ±1, ±2, …

1
𝑓𝑜 =
𝑁
𝑠𝑘+𝑁 𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑛(𝑘+𝑁)/𝑁 = 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑘/𝑁 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑁/𝑁 = 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑛 𝑠𝑘 𝑛 = 𝑠𝑘(𝑛)

Fourier Series expansion of 𝑥(𝑛):

𝑁−1 𝑁−1

𝑥 𝑛 = ෍ 𝑐𝑘 𝑠𝑘 𝑛 = ෍ 𝑐𝑘 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑘𝑛/𝑁
𝑘=0 𝑘=0

𝑐𝑘 − 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑠𝑘 𝑛 - kth harmonic of x(n)

 Analog to Digital & Digital To Analog Conversion

ADC – Analog to Digital Converter

DAC – Digital to Analog Converter

Steps for ADC:

1. Sampling
If 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) – input – analog signal
𝑥𝑎 𝑛𝑇 - output – sampled signal
T – sampling interval
2. Quantization – converting discrete-time continuous – valued signal to
discrete –time, discrete-valued (digital) signal

Quantization error – difference between the quantized value and the sampled value

Quantization error = 𝑥𝑞 𝑛 − 𝑥(𝑛) where 𝑥𝑞 𝑛 - quantized value

x(n) – sampled value

3. Coding – each quantized value is represented by b-bit binary sequence

example: 4  0000100 (ASCII code)

Digtal-to-Analog Converter (DAC) – “connects the dots” done by interpolation

Sampling of Analog Signals

𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥𝑎 𝑛𝑇 −∞<𝑛 <∞
Where 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
- sampled signal
𝑛
𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇 =
𝐹𝑠
Where t – time (sec)
n – number of samples
T – sampling period (sec)
Fs – sampling frequency (Hz)
Consider an analog sinusoidal signal:

𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝐹𝑡 + 𝜃)

If sampled:
𝑥𝑎 𝑛𝑇 ≡ 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝐹𝑛𝑇 + 𝜃)
2𝜋𝑛𝐹
= 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 +𝜃
𝐹𝑠

𝐹
If 𝑓=𝐹 or 𝜔 = Ω𝑇
𝑠

−∞ < 𝐹 < ∞
−∞ < Ω < ∞

But for discrete-time sinusoids:

1 1
− <𝑓<
2 2
−𝜋 < 𝜔 < 𝜋
 𝐹
from 𝑓=𝐹 from 𝜔 = Ω𝑇
𝑠
𝜔
𝐹 = 𝑓𝐹𝑠 Ω=
𝑇
1 1
With 𝐹𝑠 = With 𝐹𝑠 =
𝑇 𝑇

1 and since
𝐹=𝑓
𝑇 −𝜋 < 𝜔 < 𝜋
and since then
1 1 −∞ < Ω < ∞
− <𝑓<
2 2
then 𝜔 𝜔
− <Ω<
𝑇 𝑇
−𝑓𝐹𝑠 < 𝐹 < 𝑓𝐹𝑠 1 1
1 1 1 1 − 𝜋 <Ω< 𝜋
− <𝐹< 𝑇 𝑇
2 𝑇 2 𝑇
𝜋 𝜋
1 1 − <Ω<
− <𝐹< 𝑇 𝑇
2𝑇 2𝑇
or or
𝐹𝑠 𝐹𝑠 −𝜋𝐹𝑠 < Ω < 𝜋𝐹𝑠
− <𝐹<
2 2
The highest value of F & Ω are:
𝐹𝑠 1
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
2 2𝑇
𝜋
Ω𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜋𝐹𝑠 =
𝑇
Example: Consider the following analog sinusoidal signals:
𝑥1 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 10 𝑡
𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 50 𝑡

Sampled at 𝐹𝑠 = 40𝐻𝑧
From
𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝐹𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝑥𝑎 𝑛𝑇 ≡ 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝐹𝑛𝑇 + 𝜃)
2𝜋𝑛𝐹
= 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 +𝜃
𝐹𝑠

Then the discrete-time signals are:

10 𝜋
𝑥1 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛
40 2
50 5𝜋 𝜋𝑛 𝜋𝑛
𝑥2 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 𝑛 = cos 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑛 + = 𝑐𝑜𝑠
40 2 2 2
Hence
𝑥1 𝑛 = 𝑥2 𝑛

And 𝑭𝟐 = 𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑭𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝑯𝒛 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇

𝟒𝟎 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
generally
𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝐹0 𝑡 + 𝜃)
With
1
𝐹𝑠 =
𝑇
Results in
𝑥(𝑛) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓0 𝑛 + 𝜃)
where 𝐹0
𝑓0 = Relative frequency of the sinusoid
𝐹𝑠

assuming
𝐹𝑠 𝐹𝑠
− ≤ 𝐹0 ≤
2 2
The frequency range for discrete-time signals is
1 1
− < 𝑓0 <
2 2
for
𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝐹𝑘 𝑡 + 𝜃)

where
𝐹𝑘 = 𝐹0 + 𝑘𝐹𝑠 , 𝑘 = ±1, ±2, …

𝐹𝑠 𝐹𝑠
Then 𝐹𝑘 is outside the fundamental frequency range − ≤ 𝐹0 ≤
2 2
and
𝐹𝑜 + 𝑘𝐹𝑠
𝑥 𝑛 ≡ 𝑥𝑎 𝑛𝑇 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋 𝑛+𝜃
𝐹𝑠
𝐹
= 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑛 𝐹0 + 𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑛
𝑠
= 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑛𝜋𝑓𝑜 + 𝜃
Aliasing

1 7
𝐹0 = 𝐻𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹1 = − 𝐻𝑧 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑠 = 1𝐻𝑧
8 8
From
𝐹𝑘 = 𝐹0 + 𝑘𝐹𝑠 ,
7
With k=-1 and 𝐹1 = −
8
−7 1
𝐹0 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹𝑠 = + 1 = 𝐻𝑧
8 8
 𝐹𝑠
Folding frequency - -> 𝑜𝑟 𝜔 = 𝜋
2

Example: Consider the analog signal

𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠(100𝜋𝑡)
a. Determine the minimum sampling rate required to avoid aliasing
Soln:
𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋(50)𝑡 𝐹 = 50𝐻𝑧

𝐹𝑠 𝐹𝑠
From − ≤𝐹 ≤
2 2
Hence 𝐹𝑠 = 2 50𝐻𝑧 = 100𝐻𝑧 Minimum sampling rate

b. Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate 𝐹𝑠 = 200𝐻𝑧. What is the
discrete-time signal obtained after sampling?
2𝜋𝑛𝐹
Soln: From 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 +𝜃
𝐹𝑠
2𝜋(50) 𝜋
𝑥(𝑛) = 3 cos 𝑛 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛
200 2
c. Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate 𝐹𝑠 = 75𝐻𝑧. What is the discrete-time
signal obtained after sampling?

Soln: 2𝜋(50) 4𝜋
𝑥(𝑛) = 3 cos 𝑛 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛
75 3
2𝜋
= 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋 − 3 𝑛
2𝜋
= 3cos 3 n

𝐹𝑠
d. What is the frequency 0 < 𝐹 < of a sinusoid that yields samples identical to those
2
obtained in part c?
Soln:
For 𝐹𝑠 = 75𝐻𝑧
𝐹 = 𝑓𝐹𝑠 = 75𝑓
1
The frequency of the sinusoid in part c is 𝑓 = 3
Hence 1
𝐹 = 𝑓𝐹𝑠 = 75𝑓 = 75
3
= 25𝐻𝑧

And 𝑭 = 𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑭 = 𝟐𝟓𝑯𝒛 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇

𝟕𝟓 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
Sampling Theorem

“If the highest frequency contained in an analog signal 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 is 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐵 and

the signal is sampled at a rate 𝑭𝒔 > 𝟐𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 ≡ 𝟐𝑩, then 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 can be
exactly recovered from its sample values using the interpolation function.”
𝑁

Let 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = ෍ 𝐴𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝐹𝑖 𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 Where N –no. of frequency components

𝑖=1

To avoid aliasing, 𝑭𝒔 > 𝟐𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙  Nyquist Rate

From 𝐹𝑠 𝐹𝑠
− ≤𝐹 ≤
2 2

Signal Type Maximum Frequency Sampling

component Rate/Frequency (𝑭𝒔 )
(Fmax) 𝑭𝒔 > 𝟐𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙
Speech 3000 Hz 6KHz
TV Signals 5 MHz 10MHz
Example: Consider the analog signal

𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠50𝜋𝑡 + 10𝑠𝑖𝑛300𝜋𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠100𝜋𝑡

What is the Nyquist rate for this signal?

Solution: the frequencies present are :

𝐹1 𝑡 = 25 𝐻𝑧 𝐹2 𝑡 = 150 𝐻𝑧 𝐹3 𝑡 = 50 𝐻𝑧

Thus 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 150 𝐻𝑧

And
𝐹𝑠 > 2𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 150 𝐻𝑧 = 300𝐻𝑧

The Nyquist Rate for the signal is:

𝐹𝑁 = 2𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 300𝐻𝑧
Example: Consider the analog signal
𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠2000𝜋𝑡 + 5𝑠𝑖𝑛6000𝜋𝑡 + 10𝑐𝑜𝑠12,000𝜋𝑡

a. What is the Nyquist rate for this signal?

Soln:

𝐹1 𝑡 = 1𝐾𝐻𝑧 𝐹2 𝑡 = 3𝐾𝐻𝑧 𝐹3 𝑡 = 6𝐾𝐻𝑧

Thus 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 6𝐾𝐻𝑧

And
𝐹𝑠 > 2𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 6 𝐾𝐻𝑧 = 12𝐾𝐻𝑧

The Nyquist Rate for the signal is:

𝐹𝑁 = 2𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 12𝐾𝐻𝑧