Active Filters

Active and Passive Filters

Depending on the type of elements used :

1. Passive Filters
2.Active Filters

Passive Filters : Elements such as resistors , capacitors and

inductors are used

Active Filters : Employs transistors , op-amp in addition to

passive elements(R,L,C) 2
• The type of elements used indicates the frequency range of
filter :

RC : Audio frequency (Low frequency)

LC : RF frequency (High frequency)

Filters may also be classified as : Analog and Digital

Here we will be discussing analog active RC (low frequency)

filters using op-amp.
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 Advantages of Active Filters
• Gain and frequency adjustment flexibility : Op-amp is
capable of providing gain and hence input signal is not
attenuated as it is in passive filters

• No loading Problems : Active filters provide excellent

isolation between individual stages due to high input
impedence and low output impedence

• Less cost : Much inexpensive compared to passive

components (such as bulky inductors)

• Size and weight : Active filters are small in size and less
bulky

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 ACTIVE FILTERS
• An electric filter is a frequency selective network
• It passes a specific band (range) of frequencies and blocks the
frequencies outside the band
• Classification :

1. Low Pass Filters

2. High Pass Filters
3.Band Pass Filters
4.Band Reject Filters
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• Low Pass Filters: A low-pass filter (LPF) is a device that
passes frequencies lower than a certain frequency ( cut-off –
frequency) and attenuates signals with frequencies higher than
the cut-off frequency

• High Pass Filters: A high-pass filter (HPF) is a device that

passes signals with a frequency higher than a certain frequency
( cutoff frequency) and attenuates signals with frequencies
lower than the cut-off frequency

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• Band Pass Filters : A band-pass filter (BPF) is a device that
passes frequencies within a certain range and rejects
(attenuates) frequencies outside that rang

• Band Reject Filters: A band reject filter (BRF) is adevice that

passes most frequencies unaltered, but attenuates a specific
range of frequencies

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First Order Low Pass Filter

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Second Order Low Pass Filter

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 Low Pass Filter

Determine fr and AV

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High Pass Filter

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 High Pass Filter

Determine fr and AV

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Analog To Digital Converters (ADC)

&

Digital To Analog Converters (DAC)

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 ADC and DAC

• In electronics an analog-to-digital converter (ADC, A/D, or

A-to-D) is a system that converts an analog signal ( such as a
sound picked up by a microphone) into a digital signal.

• In electronics an digital-to-analog converter (DAC, D/A, or

D-to-A) is a system that converts an digital signal ( such as a
signal from a loudspeaker) into a analog signal.

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 Specifications

• RESOLUTION : The smallest change in the output voltage as

a fraction( or percentage) of full scale output range

• LINEARITY : It is the measure of precision with which the

linear input- output relationship is satisfied

• ACCURACY : The measure of difference between the actual

output voltage and expected output voltage

• CONVERSION TIME :It is the time required for conversion

of analog signal into digital equivalent (or vice versa)

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• TEMPERATURE SENSITIVITY : The analog output
voltage for any fixed digital input values varies with
temperature. This is due to the temperature sensitivity of
components such as resistors , op-amp etc

• STABILITY : The performance of the converter changes with

temperature , age and power supply variations.

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 Two DAC implementations
• Type 1: Binary Weighted Resistor type DAC

– Easy to design, use many different Resistor values so it is difficult to

manufacture.

• Type 2: R-2R Resistive-Ladder DAC

– Use only two R and 2R resistor values, easy to manufacture.

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Binary weighted Resistor Type DAC

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• N –bit binary data is converted to analog voltage by using
weighted resistors 2R , 4R , 8R , ……… 2n R

Working Principle :

• Switch positions are controlled by the binary inputs. When the

binary input is logic ‘1’. It connects the corresponding
resistance to reference voltage VR

• When the binary input is logic ‘0’ , the switch remains

grounded at position 1 (No current flows through the branch)

for Switch is ON : I = (V/R)

for Switch is OFF : I = 0
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 Drawbacks
• Wide range of resistor values are required. It is difficult to
fabricate such large values of resistors

• The use of large number of switches affect the smooth

working of the circuit.

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R2R Ladder type DAC

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 ADC
• Sample and Hold Circuit

• Flash Type

• Successive approximation

• Dual Slope

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 Sample And Hold Circuit
• A basic analog to digital converter
• An n-channel enhancement MOSFET is used as a switch
• MOSFET works only when a positive voltage is applied to the
gate of the transistor
• A capacitor is connected after the switch

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WORKING

When a positive voltage is applied , MOSFET is turned

ON and input signal passes and capacitor starts charging.

After the positive pulse , transistor is OFF i/p voltage does

not pass through the circuit. However the capacitor cannot also
discharge as it does not get any path (Input impedance of O.P.-
amp is infinite , voltage follower circuit has largest input
impedance)

In other words , capacitor will hold the voltage value.

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Flash Type ADC

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• Working principle :

Basic comparator operation : VA : Non inv

VD : Inv , X : O/P
VOLTAGE INPUT VOLTAGE OUTPUT

VA > VD X=1

VA < VD X =0

VA = VD Previous value
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 Sucessive Approximation Type ADC
• Most widely used type of ADC’s

• Has the shortest conversion time

• Conversion time is not depended on the value of analog input

• Consist of : a) DAC
b) Comparator
c) Successive approximation register (SAR )

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Basic Operation :

• The input bits are enabled one at a time

• Each time the input analog voltage is compared with the

output of the DAC

• If the DAC o/p is lesser than the analog i/p , the comparator
o/p is less (- Vsat) causing the bit value to be retained

• If the DAC o/p is greater , comparator o/p is great (+Vsat)

causing the bit value to reset ( logic ‘0’)

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ENGI 242/ELEC 222 38
• Successive approximation is one of the most widely and
popularly used ADC technique. It uses an efficient “code
search” strategy to complete n-bit conversion in just n-clock
periods. Thus it takes much shorter conversion time than
counter type ADC.
• 2) Figure 1 shows the block diagram of successive
approximation DAC. An four bit converter would require eight
clock pulses to obtain a digital output.
• 3) To start conversion “SOC” input is made 1. As soon as
“SOC” input is 1, SAR will set MSB to 1 and all other bits to 0
so that trial code output of SAR is D1,D2,D3,D4 = 1000.

January 2004 ENGI 242/ELEC 222 39

• 4) The output of SAR is then applied to DAC. The
corresponding output DAC VD is applied to comparator.

• 5) If VD< Va i.e trial code is less than the correct digital

representation then output goes high which is applied to SAR.

• 6) In response to high comparator output, MSB D1 is

maintained at 1 and the next bit D2 is made 1. The trial code at
the SAR output now becomes 1100. The corresponding DAC
output is compared with Va and the process continues
• .
• 7) However for the first trial code, VD>Va, then the
comparator output will go low i.e. 0. The SAR will respond to
it by reseting its MSB bits D1 to 0 and next bit D2=1 so that
the new trial code is 0100.
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• 8) The procedure is repeated for all the subsequent bit
one at a time, until all bit position are tested. When all
the bit positions are tested, end of conversion (EOC)
output goes high to indicate conversion is over.

• 9) The complete conversion sequence for 4-bit

successive approximation ADC is shown in Figure 2.
It can be seen that the DAC output voltage becomes
successively closer to the actual analog input voltage.
It requires n pulses equivalent to n bits to establish
the accurate output regardless of the value of the
analog input. 41
Dual Slope ADC

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555 TIMER IC

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 555 TIMER
• The 555 Timer is a highly stable device for generating accurate
time delay or oscillations.

• 555 Timer is an 8 pin integrated circuits

• Applications : Oscillator , Pulse generator , ramp and square

wave generator , multivibrator , burglar alarm,traffic light
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control etc .
Functional Diagram of 555 Timer

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MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

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ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

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