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n= sin i
sin r
n: refractive Index
c: speed of light in vacuum
n = c / v v: speed of light in medium
n −1 M 2
P=( 2 )
n +2 p
Refractive Index of Some Common polymers
Polymers Index
poly(pentabromophenyl 1.710
methacrylate)
I I − A. L
log = − A.L or = −e
I0 I0
Infrared spectroscopy
Infrared (IR) spectroscopy measures the bond vibration
frequencies in a molecule and is used to determine the
functional group
Occupied levels
p
s
Molecular orbitals
s*
s s* alkanes
p*
s p* carbonyls
p p* unsaturated cmpds.
Energy
n
n s* O, N, S, halogens
n p* carbonyls
p
s
X-ray spectroscopy
nλ = 2 d sin θ
• Constructive interference only occurs for
certain θ’s correlating to a (hkl) plane,
specifically when the path difference is equal
to n wavelengths.