Telecommunication

Network Alternatives
Telecommunication is a highly technical, rapidly changing
field of Information System and Technology. Most Business
professionals do not need a detailed Knowledge of its
technical characteristics . However , it is necessary that you
understand Some of the important characteristics of the
basic components of telecommunication Networks, This
understanding will help you participate effectively in
decision making regarding telecommunication
alternatives
 Telecommunication Network Model
Before we begin our discussion on telecommunication network
alternative we should understand the basic component of a
telecommunication network. Generally a communication network
is any arrangement in which a sender transmits a message to a
receiver over a channel consisting of some types of types medium
as shown in the figure next.
Terminals, such as networked personal computers, network
computers, net boxes or information appliances. Any input/output
device that uses telecommunication network to transmit or receive
data is a terminal including telephones and various computer
terminal.
Telecommunication Processors, which support data
transmission and reception between terminals and computers.
These devices such as modems, switches and routers perform a
variety of control and support functions in a telecommunication
network
For example- they convert data from digital to analog and
back, code and decode data and control the speed, accuracy
and efficiency of the communication flow between computers
and terminals in a network.
Telecommunication Channels over which data are
transmitted and received. Telecommunication channels may
use combinations of media such as copper wire, coaxial cables
or fiber optic cable or use wireless system like microwave,
communication satellite, radio and cellular system to
interconnect to the other components of a telecommunication
networks.
Computers of all size and types are interconnected by
telecommunication networks so that they can carry out their
information processing assignments. For example- a
mainframe computer may serve as a host computer for a large
network assisted by a mid-range computer serving as a front-
end processor, while a micro computer may act as a network
server in a small network.
Telecommunication Control Software consist of program that
control telecommunication activities and manage the function of
telecommunication network. Example include- network
management program of all kinds such as telecommunication
monitors for mainframe host computer, network operating system
for network server and web browser for micro computers
Key Telecommunications network components categories and Examples

Network Alternatives Example of Alternatives

Network Internet , Intranet , Extranet, LAN ,WAN , Client/Server,

Network computing , peer to peer

Media Twisted Pair wire , Coaxial cable , fiber optics,

microwave radio, communication satellite, cellular
and PC System, wireless mobile
Processors Modems, multiplexers , switches , routers , hubs,
gateways.

Software Network operating system , telecommunication

monitors, Web browsers, middleware

Channels Analogs/ digital , switched/ non switched , circuits/

messages / packets / self switching , bandwidth
alternatives
Topology/ Star ,ring , and bus topologies , OSI and TCP / IP
Architectures architectures
 Data Transmission Modes

There are three ways for transmitting data from one point to
another as :
Simplex
Half-duplex
Full-duplex
A simplex communication system sends a message in only one
direction. The message source works as the transmitter. It
sends the message over the data channel to the receiver. The
receiver is the destination of the message. Examples of simplex
data communication include radio stations and TV broadcasts.
wait until the signal stops before responding. If the two data
transfers attempt to send at the same time, they both fail. For
instance, if you talk on a CB radio(Citizen Band Radio), you
press a button and speak. If the receiver attempts to press the
button and speak at the same time, neither one of you hear
either message. The system is not capable of sending both ways
simultaneously
Full Duplex :
A full duplex is a communication that works both ways at the same
time. Essentially, full duplex data communication is a set of two
simplex channels, one works as a forward channel and the other as
a reserve channel. The two channels link together at some point.
An example of a full duplex communication system is a landline
telephone. When talking on a telephone, both parties have the
ability to speak at the same time. The data, carried both ways
through the telephone line, runs simultaneously.
 The OSI Model
Open System Interconnection Model is an open standard for all
communication systems. OSI model is established by International
Standard Organization (ISO). The OSI model uses the concept of
seven stacked layers to define a network communications system.
The lower three layers: Physical, Data Link, and Network, deal mostly
with network-dependent (hardware) functions.
The upper four layers: Transport, Session, Presentation, and
Application, deal more with application-oriented (user or software)
functions. A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer
below it. For example, a layer that provides error-free communications
across a network provides the path needed by applications above it,
while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that
comprise the contents of that path.
Application Layer: This layer is responsible for providing interface to the
application user. This layer encompasses protocols which directly interact with the
user.
Presentation Layer: This layer defines how data in the native format of
remote host should be presented in the native format of host.
Session Layer: This layer maintains sessions between remote hosts. For
example, once user/password authentication is done, the remote host maintains
this session for a while and does not ask for authentication again in that time span.
Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery between
hosts.
Network Layer: This layer is responsible for address assignment and
uniquely addressing hosts in a network.
Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for reading and writing data from
and onto the line. Link errors are detected at this layer.
Physical Layer: This layer defines the hardware, cabling, wiring, power
output, pulse rate etc.
 Inter-Networking devices
Connectivity devices are devices used to make physical network
connections. They do not make changes to the data or
transmission route. Connectivity devices operate at the physical
layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
Internetworking devices move data across a network. They may
direct data to specific locations within the network and/or convert
data into alternative formats.
Generally speaking, these connectivity devices are passive in their
actions, meaning that they do not make changes to either the data
or the transmission route of that data. These devices simply
provide the physical link between workstations and other network
devices
Network Interface Card
 A Network Interface card (NIC) is a hardware devise through which the
computers connects to a network
 NIC work at both the data link layer and Physical layer of OSI reference Model.
 At the data link layer , NIC converts the data packets into data frames , at the
Media ACess address (MAC Address) to data frame. At the physical layer , it
converts data into signals and transmits it across the communication medium.
The MAC address is a globally unique hardware number present in the NIC and is
specified by the NIC manufacturers.
 NIC depends upon the configuration of the computers , unlike hub or switches
that perform independently.
Repeaters
 Repeaters are used to extend LAN. It has only two ports and can connects only
two segments of a network. Multiple repeaters can used to connect more
segments. ( Segment is a logical section of same network).
 Repeaters operates at Physical layers of OSI reference Model.
 They are useful when computers in a network are located far away from each
others.
 Repeaters amplify the signal so that the signal is as strong as the original signal.
They can thus extend the reach of the network.
 Hub
 It’s a like a repeaters with multiple ports. But , hub does not amplify the incoming
signal .
 Hub operates at the physical layers of OSI Reference Model , hence treat data as a
signals.
 Hub are used to connects multiple segments of the same network.
 Hubs are also used to connect computers to network that use star topology.
 The port on the hub can also be used to connect another hub , switches , bridge
and routers.
 Hub increase the network traffic because the broadcast data to all the devices
connected to all the ports of the hub
 Its preferable to use a hub in a small LAN having about 8-10 computers connected
to it.
 Bridge
 Bridge is used to connect two LAN segments like a repeaters ; it forwards
complete and corrects frames to the other segments .It does not forward
any electrical interference signals to the other segments .
 Bridge forward a copy of the frame to the other segments , only if
necessary .If a frame is meant for a computers on a same segments , then
bridge does not forward a copy of the frame to other segments.
 Bridge connect network that used different protocol at the data link layer.
The frame format of data in the two networks is different. The bridge
converts the frame format before transmitting data from one network to
another , with translation software included in the bridge.
 A bridge is also used to divide a network into separate broadcast domains
to reduce network traffic while maintaining connectivity between the
computers.
 Switch
 Like Hub , switch always connect multiple computers in a network or different
segments of the same network. A Hub simulates a single segments that is shared
by all computers attached to it. In an hub , at most two computers can interact
with each other at a given point of time. However , in a switch each computer
attached to a switch has a simulated LAN segment.
 Switches work at the data link layer of OSI reference Model . Hence , switches
consider data as frames and not as signals.
 A data frame contains the MAC address of the destination computers. A switch
receive a signal as a data frame from a source computers on a port , checks the
MAC address of the frame, forward the frame to the port connected to the
destination computers having the same MAC address , reconverts the frame
back into signal and send to the destination computers.(Switching is a
technique that reads the MAC Address of the data frame and forwards the data
to the appropriate port ) Switches , thus , regenerates the signal.
 Since a switch does not broadcast data , but send s the data from the source
computers to the destination computers, a half of the computers attached to the
switch can send data at the same time.
 Switch is also referred to as a multi port bridge. In general , bridges are used to
extend the distance of the network , and switches are primarily used for their
filtering capabilities to create a multiple and smaller Virtual LAN.
 Router
 Router is used to connect heterogeneous networks.
 A routers has a processor , memory , and I/O interface for each network to which it
connects.
 A router connects networks that used different technologies , different media , and
physical addressing schemes or frame formats.
 A router can connects two LANs , a LAN and WAN, or two WAN.
 A routers is used to interconnect the networks in the Internet.
 Routers operates at network layer of the OSI Model .
 Physically , a routers resemble a bridge , but is different from the bridge. Routers
determines which way is the shortest or fastest in a network , and routes packets
accordingly. Since it works at the network layer, it moves packets based on the IP
addresses etc. In contrast , a bridge connects two LANs almost permanently
 Gateway
 Gateway is a generic term used to represent devices that connect two
dissimilar network.
 A gateway at the transport layer converts protocol among communication
networks. It can accept a packets formatted for one protocol and concert it
to a packets formatted for another protocol , before forwarding it .An
application gateway can translate messages from one format to the other.
 Gateway operates at all the seven layers of OSI Model.
 Gateway is also called a protocol converter.
 A gateway can be implemented in hardware , software, or in both generally
, gateway is implemented by software installed within a router

The network connecting devise – repeater and Hub operates at the Physical
layers , Bridge and switches operates at the Data link layers , and the router
operates at the network layer of the OSI Model.
Modem: Modems are the most common type of
communication processor. They convert the digital signals from
a computer to a transmission terminal at one end of a
communication link into analogue frequency that can be
transmitted over ordinary telephone lines. Modem has both a
Modulator and Demodulator. Modulator accept data signal
from the computer and modulates the carrier wave accordingly.
Demodulator accepts modulated carrier wave and regenerates
the original data signal from it. During data communication,
modem is attached to the computer both at the sender the
receiver side. Modems are used with all transmission media like
RF Modem for RF transmission and Optic Modem for
transmission through fiber optic.
Multiplexer
Multiplexer is a communication processor that allows a single
communication channel to carry simultaneous data
transmission from many terminals. This process is
accomplished in two basic ways. In frequency division
multiplexing (FDM) a multiplexer effectively divides a high
speed channel into multiple low-speed channel. In time
division multiplexing (TDM) the multiplexer divides the time
each terminal can use the high-speed line into very short time
slots or time frames
Telecommunication Software
Telecommunication software is a vital component of all
telecommunication network. Telecommunication and network
management software may reside in PCs, servers, main frames
and communication processors like multiplexers and routers.
Network severs and other computers in a network use these
program to manage network performance. Network
management program perform functions such as automatically
checking client’s PC for input/output activity, assigning
priorities to data communication request from clients and
terminals and detecting and correcting transmission errors and
other network problems.
 Bandwidth Alternatives
A term used to describe the data-handling capacity of a communication
service is bandwidth. Bandwidth is the range of frequencies that is available
for the transmission of data.
The communication data transfer rate is measured in a unit called baud.
Baud is identical to bits per second(bps).
Bandwidth represent the capacity of connection. The greater the capacity the
more likely that greater performance will follow. The greater bandwidth
allow greater amount of data to move one point to another with greater
speed. Although the relationship among bandwidth , data volume and
speed is theoretically sound in practice , this is not always the case. A
common analogy is to think of bandwidth as a pipe with water in it. The
greater the pipe the more water that can flow through it. If however the big
pipe is connected to small pipe , the effective amount of water that can be
moved in a given time becomes severely restricted by small pipe. The same
problem occurs with network bandwidth . If a large bandwidth connection
tries to move a large amount of data to a network with less bandwidth , the
speed of transmission will be determined by speed of smaller bandwidth.
Narrow-band
Narrow-band channels typically provides low speed transmission rates
up to 64 Kbps but can now handle up to 2 Mbps . They are usually
unshielded twisted pair lines commonly used for telephone voice
communication and for data communication by the modem of PCs and
other devices .

Medium- band
They are medium speed channels and used shielded twisted pair lines
for transmission speed of 100 Mpbs.

Broad –band
Broadband channel provides high speed transmission rate at intervals
from 256 Kbps to several billions bps. Typically they use microwave ,
fibre optics or satellite transmission . Examples are 1.54 Mbps for T1 and
45 Mbps for T3 communication channels, up to 100 Mbps for
communications channels . And between 52 Mbps and 10 Gbps for fibre
optics lines .
 Communication Media
The medium (or media, if there is more than one) is the
physical matter or substance that carries the voice or data
communication. Many different types of communication media
are currently in use, such as copper (wire), glass or plastic (fiber-
optic cable), or air (radio, infrared, microwave, or satellite).
There are two basic types of media.
Guided media and Un-guided Media or Wireless media
Guided media are those in which the message flows through a
physical media such as a twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, or
fiber-optic cable; the media "guides" the signal. Un-guided
Media or Wireless media are those in which the message is
broadcast through the air, such as infrared, microwave, or
satellite.
 Guided Communication Media
Twisted Pair Cable
A twisted pair cable is made of two plastic insulated copper
wires twisted together to form a single media. Out of these two
wires, only one carries actual signal and another is used for
ground reference. The twists between wires are helpful in
reducing noise (electro-magnetic interference) and crosstalk.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable is groups of specially wrapped and insulated wires
that are able to transfer data at higher rate .They consist of a central
copper wire surrounded by an insulation over which copper mesh
is placed. They are used for long distance telephone lines and local
area network for their noise immunity and faster data transfer.
Fiber Optics
Fiber Optic works on the properties of light. When light ray hits
at critical angle, it tends to refracts at 90 degree. This property
has been used in fiber optic. The core of fiber optic cable is
made of high quality glass or plastic. From one end of it light is
emitted, it travels through it and at the other end light detector
detects light stream and converts it to electric data.
Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed. It comes in two
modes, one is single mode fiber and second is multimode fiber.
Single mode fiber can carry a single ray of light whereas
multimode is capable of carrying multiple beams of light.
 Un-Guided or Wireless Communication Media
Wireless Communication is a form of unguided media. Wireless
communication involves no physical link established between
two or more devices, communicating wirelessly. Wireless
signals are spread over in the air and are received and
interpreted by appropriate antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer
or wireless device, it converts the digital data into wireless
signals and spread all over within its frequency range. The
receptor on the other end receives these signals and converts
them back to digital data.
The Communication is set and the information is transmitted
through the air, without requiring any cables, by using
electromagnetic waves like radio frequencies, infrared, satellite,
etc
Infrared
In general, infrared communication is only possible when both
transmitter and receiver can maintain line of sight. Infrared
transmission uses light, albeit light that's not visible to the
human eye. Infrared is generally only used for short-range,
communication.

Radio Frequency
Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large
wavelength it can penetrate through walls and structures alike.
Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls
whereas higher RF can travel in straight line and bounce back.
The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they
cover long distance. High frequency radio waves have more
power.
Terrestrial Microwave :
Terrestrial Microwave system uses very high frequency radio signals
to transmit data through space. The transmitter and receiver of a
microwave system should be in line-of-sight because the radio
signal cannot bend. With microwave very long distance
transmission is not possible.
Terrestrial Microwave involves Earth bound microwave system that
transmit high speed radio signal in a line of sight path between
relay stations spaced approximately 30 mile apart. Microwave
antennas are usually placed on top of buildings, towers, hills and
mountain’s peak and they are a familiar sight in many sections of
the country. They are still a popular medium for both long distance
and metropolitan area network.
Communication Satellites
Communication satellite also use microwave radio as their
telecommunication medium. Typically High Earth Orbit (HEO)
communication satellites are placed in stationary geosynchronous
orbits approx. 22,000 miles above the Equator. Satellites are
powered by solar panels and can transmit microwave signals at the
rate of several hundred million bits per seconds. They serve as relay
stations for communication signal transmitted from each station.
Earth station use dish antenna to beam microwave signals to the
satellites that amplify and transmit the signal to other earth
stations thousands of miles away.
Various other satellite technologies are being implemented to improve
global business communications. For example- many companies use
networks of small satellites, dish antenna know as VSAT (very small
aperture terminal) to connect their stores and distant worksites via
satellite.
Satellite transmission is similar to microwave transmission
except instead of transmission involving another nearby
microwave dish antenna, it involves a satellite many miles up
in space. INSAT-1 B is such a satellite that can be accessible
from anywhere in India. In satellite communication,
microwave signal is transmitted from a transmitter on earth to
the satellite at space. The satellite amplifies the weak signal
and transmits it back to the receiver. The main advantage of
satellite communication is that it is a single microwave relay
station visible from any point of a very large area
Wireless LANs
Wiring an office or a building for a Local Area Network is often a
difficult and costly task. One solution to such problem is installing a
Wireless LAN using one of several wireless technologies. Example
includes- High frequency radio technologies similar to digital
cellular and a low frequency radio technology called spread
spectrum.
The use of Wireless LAN is growing rapidly as new high speed
technologies are implemented. A prime example is a new open
standard wireless radio wave technology technically known as IEEE
802.11b or more popularly as Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity). Wi-Fi is
faster (11 mbps) and less expensive than standard Ethernet and
other common wire based LAN technology thus, Wi-Fi wireless
LANs enable laptop, PCs, PDAs and other devices with Wi-Fi
Modems to connect easily to the internet and other networks in a
rapidly increasing number of business environment.
The Wireless Web
Wireless access to the internet, intranets and extranets is
growing as more web enabled information appliances
proliferates. Smart telephones, Pagers, PDAs and other
portable communication devices have become very thin clients
in wireless network. Agreement on standard Wireless
Application Protocol (WAP) has encouraged the development
of many wireless web application and services. The
Telecommunication industry continue to work on third-
generation (3G) wireless technologies whose goal is to raise
wireless transmission speed to enable streaming video and
multimedia applications on mobile devices.
For example- the smartphone and receive email and provide
web access via a “Web Clipping” technologies that generates
custom designed web pages from many popular financial,
securities, travel, sports and E-commerce websites.
Bluetooth
Bluetooth uses microwaves to transmit data between devices.
Microwaves are highly penetrative, and are able to pass
through the vast majority of materials with relative ease.
Bluetooth, therefore, doesn't need to maintain line of sight for
two devices to connect, even though its maximum range is
short. Bluetooth can potentially be used to keep two devices in
contact for extended periods. For example, you might put your
smart phone in your pocket and use Bluetooth headphones to
stream music from it wirelessly .
A short ranged wireless technology called Bluetooth is rapidly
being built into computers and other devices. Bluetooth serve as
a cable-free connection to peripheral devices such as computers,
printers and scanners. Operating at approx. 1 mbps with an
effective range from 10 to 100 meters. Bluetooth promises to
change significantly the way we use computers and other
Telecommunication devices.
Conceived initially by ERICSSON and later adopted by myriad of
other companies. Bluetooth is a standard for a small, cheap radio
chip to be plugged into computers, printers, mobile phones and
so forth. A Bluetooth chip is designed to replace cables by taking
the information normally carried by the cable and transmitting it
at a special frequency to a receiver bluetooth chip which will then
give the information received to the computers, telephones,
printers or other bluetooth devices. Given its fairly low cost to
implement, Bluetooth is set to revolutionize
The Problem of “The Last Mile”
While on the subject of telecommunication media, we need to
understand the pervasive problem in the telecommunications
industry: The Problem of The Last Mile. The Last Mile problem,
although simple to understand, is still one of the greatest
challenges faced by the telecommunications providers.
The basic problem goes something like this: The
telecommunication provider adopts a new, faster, better
technology that can provide bandwidths and faster
telecommunication speed to consumers. A good example of this
type of situation is the invention of fiber optic-cable and its
related optical technologies. Fiber can move data at lightning
speeds and handle a much larger volume of data than the more
typical twisted-pair wiring commonly found in households. So
the telecommunications provider completely re-engineers the
network and begins laying fiber instead of copper wire in
Trenches. The fiber, costing $500,000 to $1 million per mile,
begins bringing all of its faster, better and cheaper benefits to the
front of door of the consumer. This is where the Last Mile
Problem begins. Out in front of the house lies enough bandwidth
to handle more than 100 million telephone calls or download
entire movies in a few seconds. The problem is that the house it is
connecting to is wired with twisted pair wiring that just cannot
handle the bandwidth provided by the fiber. This situation is
analogous to hooking up a garden hose to the water volume
generated by Niagara fall . At the end of the day , the amount of
water to get is whatever will come out of the garden hose and
nothing more. Therefore, the problem is more than just the cost.
In many cases, wiring in a structure cannot be upgraded and
bandwidth right outside the door just cannot be accessed.
.
Many methods has been offered to solve the last mile problem. Cable
companies are providing a single wire solution to many modern house hold.
By using sophisticated technologies , they can bring cable television ,
Internet access , and telephone services into a home using only the coaxial
wire originally put there for cable television .Other solution includes by
passing the old wired network completely and proving high speed service via
a satellite or other wireless approaches . Regardless of the solution , the
problem of the last mile still very much an issue to consider when designing a
telecommunication network.
Although ,still in the developmental stages, one solution to last mile problem
may be WiMax defined as World wide Interoperability for microwave access ,
WiMax is intended to provide high speed , mobile telecommunication
services to diverse Internet connection and location . There are still many
issue to work out regarding WiMax, but it looks like we may be able to solve
the problem of the last mile connectivity somewhere in the near future.
Thanks !!!!!!!!!