EXPERT SYSTEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Email: expertsyssol@gmail.com
expertsyssol@yahoo.com
Cell: 9952749533
www.researchprojects.info
PAIYANOOR, OMR, CHENNAI
Call For Research Projects Final
year students of B.E in EEE, ECE,
EI, M.E (Power Systems), M.E
(Applied Electronics), M.E (Power
Electronics)
Ph.D Electrical and Electronics.
Students can assemble their hardware in our
Research labs. Experts will be guiding the
projects.
 INTRODUCTION TO STABILITY

 What is stability
 the tendency of power system to restore the state of
equilibrium after the disturbance
 mostly concerned with the behavior of synchronous
machine after a disturbance
 in short, if synchronous machines can remain
synchronism after disturbances, we say that system is
stable
 Stability issue
 steady-state stability – the ability of power system to
regain synchronism after small and slow disturbances
such as gradual power change
 transient stability – the ability of power system to
regain synchronism after large and sudden
disturbances such as a fault
Energy Conversion Lab
 POWER ANGLE
 Power angle
 relative angle r betwee
n rotor mmf and air-ga
p mmf (angle between
Fr and Fsr), both rotatin
g iin synchronous speed

also the angle r betwe
en no-load generated e
mf E and stator voltage
Esr
 also the angle  betwee
n emf E and terminal vo
ltage V, if neglecting ar
mature resistance and l
eakage flux

Energy Conversion Lab

 DEVELOPING SWING EQUATION
 Synchronous machine operation
 consider a synchronous generator with electromagnet
ic torque Te running at synchronous speed ωsm.
 during the normal operation, the mechanical torque T
m = Te
 a disturbance occur will result in accelerating/decelera
ting torque Ta=Tm-Te (Ta>0 if accelerating, Ta<0 if dece
lerating)
 introduce the combined moment of inertia of prime m
over and generator J
 by the law of rotation -- d 2 m
J 2
 Ta  Tm  Te
dt

m is the angular displacement of rotor w.r.t. stationery
reference frame on the stator
Energy Conversion Lab
 DEVELOPING SWING EQUATION
 Derivation of swing equation
 m = ωsmt+m, ωsm is the constant angular velocity
 take the derivative of m, we obtain –
d m d
 sm  m
dt dt
 take the second derivative of m, we obtain –
d 2 m d 2 m
2

dt dt 2

 substitute into
d 2 the law of rotation
J 2
m
 Ta  Tm  Te
dt
 multiplying ωm to obtain power equation
2
d m 2
d m
Jm 2
 M 2
 mTm  mTe  Pm  Pe
dt dt
Energy Conversion Lab
 DEVELOPING SWING EQUATION
 Derivation of swing equation
 swing equation in terms of inertial constant M
d 2 m
M 2
 Pm  Pe
dt
 relations between electrical power angle  and mecha
nical power angle m and electrical speed and mecha
nical speed
p p
 m,  m where p is pole number
2 2
 swing equation in 2terms of electrical power angle 
2 d 
M 2  Pm  Pe
p dt
 converting the swing equation into per unit system
2 H d 2 2H
 Pm ( pu )  Pe ( pu ) , where M 
s dt 2 s
Energy Conversion Lab
 DEVELOPING SWING EQUATION
 Derivation of swing equation
 swing equation in terms of inertial constant M
d 2 m
M 2
 Pm  Pe
dt
 relations between electrical power angle  and mecha
nical power angle m and electrical speed and mecha
nical speed
p p
 m,  m where p is pole number
2 2

 swing equation in 2terms of electrical power angle 

2 d 
M 2  Pm  Pe
p dt
 converting2 the swing equation into per unit system
2H d  2H
 Pm ( pu )  Pe ( pu ) , where M 
s dt 2 s
Energy Conversion Lab
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS FOR
STABILITY STUDY
 Simplified synchronous machine model
 the simplified machine model is decided by the proper reactance
s, X’’d, X’d, or Xd
 for very short time of transient analysis, use X’’d
 for short time of transient analysis, use X’d
 for steady-state analysis, use Xd
Vg V

jX’d ZL
E’
Zs

 substation bus voltage and frequency remain constant is referre

d as infinite bus
 generator is represented by a constant voltage E’ behind direct a

xis transient
Energy Conversion Lab reactance X’d
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS FOR
STABILITY STUDY
 Converting the network into  equivalent circuit
 for the conversion, please see Eq.11.23
E’ V
I1 I2
1 y12 2

y10 y20

 use  equivalent line model for currents

 I1   y10  y12  y12   E '
 I    y y20  y12  V 
 2   12
 real power at node 1
Pe  E ' Y11 cos11  E ' V Y12 cos   12 
2

Energy Conversion Lab

 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS FOR
STABILITY STUDY
 Real power flow equation
 let –y12 = 1 / X12
E' V
 simplified real power equation: e
P  sin 
X 12
 Power angle curve Pe
Pmax

Pe
Pm
E' V
Pmax  
X 12 0 0 π/2 π

 gradual increase of generator power output is possibl

e until Pmax (max power transferred) is reached
 max power is referred as steady-state stability limit at
=90o
Energy Conversion Lab
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS FOR
STABILITY STUDY
 Transient stability analysis
 condition: generator is suddenly short-circuited
 current during the transient is limited by X’d
 voltage behind reactance E’=Vg+jX’dIa
 Vg is the generator terminal voltage, Ia is prefault stea
dy state generator current
 phenomena: field flux linkage will tend to remain cons
tant during the initial disturbance, thus E’ is assumed
constant
 transient power angle curve has the same form as ste
ady-state curve but with higher peak value, probably
with smaller X’d
Energy Conversion Lab
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS
INCLUDING SALIENCY
 Phasor diagram of salient-pole machine
 condition: under steady state with armature resistanc
e neglected
Iq
a  E

jXqIq
Id Ia V XdId
 power angle equation in per unit
EV 2 Xd  Xq
P sin   V sin 2
Xd 2Xd Xq
 voltage equation in per unit
E  V cos   X d I d  V cos   X d I a sin     

 E is no-load generated emf in pu, V is generator termi

nal voltage in pu
Energy Conversion Lab
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS
INCLUDING SALIENCY
 Calculation of voltage E
 starting with a given (known) terminal voltage V and a
rmature current Ia, we need to calculate  first by usin
g phasor diagram and then result in voltage E
 X q I a cos  
  tan  1
 E  V cos   X d I a sin    

 V  X q I a sin  
 once E is obtained, P could be calculated
 Transient power equation
 for salient
'
machine
Eq V 2 X d'  X q
Pe  '
sin   V '
sin 2
X d 2X Xq
d
 this equation represents the behavior of SM in early p
art of transient period

calculate  first, then calculate |E’q|: '
 see example 11.1 Eq  V cos   X d I a sin    
'

Energy Conversion Lab

 STEADY-STATE STABILITY – SMALL
DISTURBANCE
 Steady-state stability
 the ability of power system to remain its synchronism
and returns to its original state when subjected to sma
ll disturbances
 such stability is not affected by any control efforts suc
h as voltage regulators or governor
 Analysis of steady-state stability by swing equatio
n
 starting from swing equation
H d 2
 Pm ( pu )  Pe ( pu )  Pm  Pmax sin 
f 0 dt 2

 introduce a small disturbance Δ

 derivation is from Eq.11.37 (see pg. 472)

 simplify the nonlinear function of power angle 

Energy Conversion Lab
 STEADY-STATE STABILITY – SMALL
DISTURBANCE
 Analysis of steady-state stability by swing equation
 swing equation in terms of Δ
H d 2  dP
 Pm cos  0   0 PS  0  Pmax cos  0
f 0 dt 2
d
 PS=Pmax cos0: the slope of the power-angle curve at 0,
PS is positive when 0 <  < 90o (See figure 11.3)
 the second order differential equation
H d 
2
 PS   0
f 0 dt 2

f 0
s2  
PS
 Characteristic equation: H
 rule 1: if P is negative, one root is in RHP and system i
S
s unstable

rule 2: if PS is positive, two roots in the jω axis and moti
on is oscillatory and undamped, system is marginally st
able
Energy Conversion Lab
 STEADY-STATE STABILITY – SMALL
DISTURBANCE
 Characteristic equation:
 rule 2 (continued): the oscillatory frequency of the unda
mped system f 0
n  PS
H
 Damping torque
 phenomena: when there is a difference angular velocity
between rotor and air gap field, an induction torque will
be set up on rotor tending to minimize the difference of
velocities
 introduce a damping power by damping torque
d
Pd  D
dt
 introduce the2 damping power into swing equation
H d  d
 D  PS   0
f 0 dt 2
dt
Energy Conversion Lab
 STABILITY ANALYSIS ON SWING EQUATION
 Characteristic equation:
2
d  d

2
 2n  n   0
2

dt dt
 Analysis of characteristic equation
 s 2  2n s  n2  0
D f 0
 for damping coefficient   1
2 HPS
 roots of characteristic equation
s1 , s2  -n  jn 1   2
 damped frequency of oscillation
d  n 1   2
 positive damping (1>>0): s1,s2 have negative real part
if PS is positive, this implies the response is bounded an
d system is stable
Energy Conversion Lab
 STABILITY ANALYSIS ON SWING EQUATION
 Solution of the swing equation
 d 2  d
2
 2n  n   0
2

dt dt
 roots of swing equation
 0  0
  e nt sin d t    ,    0  e nt sin d t   
1  2 1 2
 rotor angular frequency
n  0 n  0
   e nt sin  d t  ,   0  e nt sin  d t 
1 2 1 2
 response time constant
1 2H
 
n f 0 D

 settling time: tS  4
 relations between settling time and inertia constant H: i

Conversion LabH will result in longer t , decrease ω and 

Energy ncrease
S n
 SOLVING THE SWING EQUATION USING STATE
SPACE MATRIX
 State space approach
 state space approach can solve multi-machine system
 let x1=Δ, x2=Δω=Δ
  x 1  0 1   x1 
 x    2     x (t )  Ax (t )
 2    n  2n   x2 

  y1  1 0  x1 
 y   0   
1  x2 
 y (t )  Cx(t )
 2 
 taking the Laplace transform, from Eq.11.52
s -1 
X ( s )   sI  A x (0),  sI  A  
1

n s  2n 
2

 solution of the X(s)  s  2n 1

   x ( 0)
s
X (s)   2 n
s  2n  n2
Energy Conversion Lab
 SOLVING THE SWING EQUATION USING STATE
SPACE MATRIX
 State space approach
 u
x1 ( s )   ( s ) 
s  s 2  2n  n2 
u
x 2 ( s )   ( s ) 
 s 2  2n  n2 
 taking the inverse Laplace transform with initial state x1
(0)=Δ0, x2(0)=Δω0=0
 state solution: x1(t)=Δ(t), x2(t)=ω(t)
 0  0
  e nt sin d t    ,    0  e nt sin d t   
1 2 1 2

n  0 n  0
   e nt sin  d t  ,   0  e nt sin  d t 
1 2 1 2
Energy Conversion Lab
 STEADY STATE STABILITY EXAMPLE
 Example 11.3
 using the state space matrix to solve  and ω
 the original state 0=16.79o, new state after ΔP is impos
ed =22.5o
 the linearized equation is valid only for very small powe
r impact and deviation from the operating state
 a large sudden impact may result in unstable state eve
n if the impact is less than the steady state power limit
 the characteristic equation of determinant (sI-A) or eige
nvalue of A can tell the stability of system
 system is asymptotically stable iff eigenvalues of A are i
n LHP
 in this case, eigenvalues of A are -1.3  6.0i
Energy Conversion Lab
 TRANSIENT STABILITY
 Transient stability
 to determine whether or not synchronism is maintained
after machine has been subject to severe disturbance
 Severe disturbance
 sudden application of loads (steel mill)
 loss of generation (unit trip)
 loss of large load (line trip)
 a fault on the system (lightning)
 System response after large disturbance
 oscillations of rotor angle result in large magnitude that
linearlization is not feasible
 must use nonlinear swing equation to solve the proble
m
Energy Conversion Lab
 EQUAL AREA CRITERION
 Equal area criterion
 can be used to quickly predict system stability after
disturbance
 only applicable to a one-machine system connected to
an infinite bus or a two-machine system
 Derivation of rotor relative speed from swing
equation
 starting from the swing equation with damping
neglected
H d 2
 Pm  Pe  Pa , Pa  accelerati on power
f o dt 2

 for detailed derivation, please see pp.486

 the swing equation end up with
 d 2f o 

dt

H   P
o
m  Pe  d
Energy Conversion Lab
 EQUAL AREA CRITERION
 Synchronous machine relative speed equation
 d 2f o 

dt   Pm  Pe  d
H o

 the equation gives relative speed of machine with

respect to the synchronous revolving reference frame
 if stability of system needs to be maintained, the speed
equation must be zero sometimes after the disturbance
 Stability analysis
 stability criterion

  P
o
m  Pe  d  0

consider machine operating at the equilibrium point o,
corresponding to power input Pm0 = Pe0

a sudden step increase of Pm1 is applied results in
Energy accelerating
Conversion Lab power to increase power angle  to 1
 EQUAL AREA CRITERION
 Stability analysis
 the excess energy stored in rotor
1
  Po
m  Pe  d  area abc  area A1
 when =1, the electrical power matches new input pow
er Pm1, rotor acceleration is zero but relative speed is sti
ll positive (rotor speed is above synchronous speed), 
still increases
 as long as  increases, Pe increases, at this time the ne
w Pe >Pm1 and makes rotor to decelerate
  Pm1  Pe  d  area bde  area A2
max

1

 rotor swing back to b and the angle max makes

Energy Conversion Lab
 |area A |=|area A |
 EQUAL AREA CRITERION
 Equal area criterion (stable condition)
A2 A2max
d
A
c1 b e
Pm1 Pm1 max

1
Pm0 a
0

0 1 max t0 t

Equal Criteria: A1 = A2

A1 < A2max Stable

A1 = A2max Critically Stable
A1 > A2max Unstable

Energy Conversion Lab

 APPLICATION TO SUDDEN INCREASE OF
POWER INPUT
 Stability analysis of equal area criterion
 stability is maintained only if area A2 at least equal to A1
 if A2 < A1, accelerating momentum can never be overco
me
 Limit of stability
 when max is at intersection of line Pm and power-angle c
urve is 90o <  < 180o
 the max can be derived as (see pp.489, figure 11.12)
  max   o  sin  max  cos max  cos 0
 max can be calculated by iterative method
 Pmax is obtained by Pm=Pmaxsin1, where 1 = -max

Energy Conversion Lab

 SOLUTION TO STABILITY ON SUDDEN
INCREASE OF POWER INPUT
 Calculation of max
   max   o  sin  max  cos max  cos 0
 max can be calculated by iterative Newton Raphson me
thod
 assume the above equation is f(max) = c
 starting with initial ( estimate
c  f  k) of /2 <  max < , Δ gives
(k)

 max
(k )
 max

df
d max
 where (k )
 max

  max   0  cos  max

 df (k ) (k )

d max
the updated max(k+1)
(k )
 max


max(k+1) = max(k) + Δ max(k)

Energy Conversion Lab
 APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE FAULT
 Three phase bolt fault case
 a temporary three phase bolt fault occurs at sending end of line at b
us 1 1
Pe
F
f
 fault occurs at 0, Pe = 0
 power angle curve corresponds e
to horizontal axis A2
 machine accelerate, a d g
Pm
increase  until fault cleared at c A1
 fault cleared at c shifts operation b c 
to original power angle curve at e 0 c max
 net power is decelerating, stored
 energy reduced to zero at f
 A1(abcd) = A2(defg)
Energy Conversion Lab
 APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE FAULT
- NEAR SENDING END
 Three phase bolt fault case
Pe
 when rotor angle reach f, Pe>Pm
f
rotor decelerates and retraces
along power angle curve passing e
through e and a A2
 rotor angle would swing back and
a d g
Pm
forth around 0 at ωn A1
 with inherent damping, operating
b c 
point returns to 0 0 c max
 Critical clearing angle
 critical clearing angle is reached when further increase in c cause A
2 <
 c A1  max
 Pm d  
c
 Pmax sin   Pm d
0
Pm
cos  c    max   0   cos  max
 we obtain c Pmax
Energy Conversion Lab
 APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE FAULT
- NEAR SENDING END
 Critical clearing time
 from swing equation
H d 2
 Pm
f 0 dt 2

 integrating both sides from t = 0 to tc

 we obtain the critical clearing time
2H c  0 
tc 
f 0 Pm

Energy Conversion Lab

 APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE FAULT
- AWAY FROM SENDING END
 Three phase bolt fault case
 a temporary three phase fault occurs away from sending end of bu
s1
1
Pe
F
f A
 fault occurs at 0, Pe is reduced
 power angle curve corresponds
e C
to curve B A2
a d g
 machine accelerate, increase  Pm
A1 c
from 0 (b) until fault cleared at c B
b
(c) 
 fault cleared at  shifts operation
c
0 c max
to curve C at e
 net power is decelerating, stored

energy reduced to zero at f

 A Conversion
1(abcd) = A2(defg)
Energy Lab
 APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE FAULT
- AWAY FROM SENDING END
 Three phase bolt fault case Pe
 when rotor angle reach f, Pe>Pm f A

rotor decelerates and rotor angle e C

would swing back and forth A2
a d g
around e at ωn Pm
A1 c
 with inherent damping, operating
b B
point returns to the point that Pm 
0 c max
line intercept with curve C
 Critical clearing angle
 critical clearing angle is reached when further increase in
c cause A2 < A1 
Pm   c   0    P2 max sin  d   P3 max sin  d  Pm   max   c 
c max

0 c
Pm   max   0   P3 max cos  max  P2 max cos  0
cos  c 
 we obtain 
Energy Conversion Lab c
P3 max  P2 max
 APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE FAULT
- AWAY FROM SENDING END
 The difference between curve b and curve c
is due to the different line reactance
 curve b: the second line is shorted in the middle
point (Fig. 11.23)
 curve c: after fault is cleared, the second line is i

solated
 See example 11.5
 use power curve equation to solve max and then
c

Energy Conversion Lab

 NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR
EQUATION
 Euler method
dx
 tangent evaluation: dt x0
dx
 updated solution: x1  x0  x  x0  x0 t
dt
 drawback: accuracy
 Modified Euler method
dx dx
x0 
 tangent evaluation: dt dt x1p

 updated solution: 2
 dx dx 
x1  x0  x  x0   x0  x1  t / 2
 dt dt 
 feature: better accuracy, but time step Δt should
be properly selected
Energy Conversion Lab
 NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR
EQUATION
 Higher order equation
 use state space method to decompose higher or
der equation
 use modified Euler method to solve state space

matrix
 for swing equation of second order, use 22 stat

e space matrix to solve

 x 1  0 1   x1 
 x    2     x (t )  Ax (t )
 2   n  2n   x2 

 see pp. 504

Energy Conversion Lab
 NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF SWING
EQUATION
 Swing equation in state variable form
d
  
dt
d f 0
 Pa
dt H
 use modified Euler method
d d
p   p
i 1 , where ip1  i   t
dt i 1 dt i
d f 0 d
p 
 i 1
Pa  ip1
where  i p1   i  i t
dt H dt
 the updated values (see Ex. 11.6)
 d d   d  d 
 i  ip   i  i p 
 i 1   i   dt
c dt  t , i 1  i   dt
c dt  t
 2   2 
   
Energy Conversion Lab
 MULTIMACHINE SYSTEMS
 Multi-machine system can be written similar to on
e-machine system by the following assumption
 each synchronous machine is represented by a constan
t voltage E behind Xd (neglect saliency and flux change)
 input power remain constant
 using prefault bus voltages, all loads are in equivalent a
dmittances to ground
 damping and asynchronous effects are ignored
 mech = 
 machines belong to the same station swing together an
d are said to be coherent, coherent machines can equiv
alent to one machine
Energy Conversion Lab
 METHOD TO SOLVE MULTIMACHINE
SYSTEMS
 Solution to multi-machine system
 solve initial power flow and determine initial bus voltage
magnitude and phase angle
Si* Pi  jQi
Ii  *  *
, Ei'  Vi  jX d' I i
Vi Vi
 calculating load equivalent admittance
Pi  jQi
yi 0  2
Vi
 nodal equations of the system
0  Ynn Ynm  Vn 
I    t  ' 
Y
 m   nm Ymm   Em 
 electrical and mechanical power output of machine at st
eady state prior to disturbances
Pei  Pmi  Re Ei* I i    Ei' E 'j Yij cosij   i   j 
m

j 1
Energy Conversion Lab
 MULTIMACHINE SYSTEMS TRANSIENT
STABILITY
 Classical transient stability study is based on the a
pplication of the three-phase fault
 Swing equation of multi-machine system
H i d 2 i
j Yij cos  ij   i   j   Pmi  Pei
m



 Pmi  Ei
'
E '

f 0 dt 2
j 1

 Yij are the elements of the faulted reduced bus admittan

ce matrix
 state variable model of swing equation
d i
 i , i  1, , n
dt
di f 0
  Pmi  Pei 
dt Hi
 see example 11.7
Energy Conversion Lab