Geodynamics

Plate Tectonics

 The concept of plate tectonics covered

many important problems of physical
geology including mountain building ,
folding, faulting, seismicity and
vulcanism.
 It is primarily based on seismological
evidence supported by geomagnetism.
Earthquake
 A trembling or shaking of the ground
caused by the sudden release of energy
stored in the rocks beneath the earth’s
surface.
 Technically it can be defined as:
“ Vibrations induced in the earth’s crust
due to internal or external causes the
virtually shake up a part of the crust and
all the structures an living and non-living
things existing on it.”
 seismic waves: the waves of energy
produced by an earthquake
 elastic rebound theory: the sudden
release of progressively stored strain in
rocks that results in movement along a
fault
 Causes of Earthquakes

 when rock underground suddenly breaks

along a fault.
 This sudden release of
energy causes the seismic waves that
make the ground shake.
 When two blocks of rock or two plates
are rubbing against each other, they stick
a little.
Seismic Waves
 focus: the point within the earth where
seismic waves originate
 epicenter: the point on the earth’s
surface directly above the focus
 Body Waves
 body waves: seismic waves that travel through
the earth’s interior, spreading outward from the
focus in all directions
 P (primary) wave: a compressional (or
longitudinal) wave in which rock vibrates back
and forth parallel to the direction of wave
propagation; can travel through rock, gas, or
liquid
 Body Waves (cont.)
 S (secondary) waves: a slower, transverse
wave that travels through near surface rocks
at 2 to 5 kilometers per second; the rock
vibrates perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation; can travel through rock
but not gas or liquid
Surface Waves
 surface waves: seismic waves that travel on the
earth’s surface away from the epicenter
 love waves: waves that have no vertical
displacement; they move side to side in a horizontal
plane that is perpendicular to the direction the wave
is traveling or propagating; do not travel through
liquids; because of horizontal movement the waves
tend to knock buildings off their foundation
 Surface Waves (cont.)
 Rayleigh waves: behave like rolling ocean
waves; cause the ground to move in an elliptical
path as the wave passes; tend to be incredibly
destructive because they produce more ground
movement and take longer to pass
Measuring the Size of an Earthquake
 intensity: a measure of an earthquake’s effect on
people and buildings
 modified Mercalli scale: scale expressing intensities
of earthquakes (judged on amount of damage done)
in Roman numerals ranging from I to XII
 magnitude: a measure of the energy released during
the earthquake
 Richter scale: a numerical scale of magnitudes
 moment magnitude: an earthquake magnitude
calculated from the strength of the rock, surface area
of the fault rupture, and the amount of rock
displacement along the fault
Magnitude of Earthquake

 Magnitude is generally shown on Richter

Scale.
 Earthquakes are grouped into 5 classes on
the basis of magnitude.
Class Magnitude
A 7.8 and above
B 7.0-7.7
C 6.0-7.0
D 5.3-6.0
E Less than 5.3

 Class A are highly destructive

 Class E are not of any significance.
 Measuring Earthquakes
 seismograph: a recording device that
produces a permanent record of earth motion
detected by a seismometer, usually in the
form of a wiggly line drawn on a moving strip
of paper
 A seismograph for horizontal motion. Modern
seismographs record earth motion on moving
strips of paper. The mass is suspended by a
wire from the column and swings like a
pendulum when the ground moves
horizontally. A pen attached to the mass
records the motion on a moving strip of
paper.
Measuring Earthquakes
 A simple seismograph for detecting
vertical rock motion.
 The pen records the ground motion on the
seismogram as the spring stretches and
compresses with up and down movement
of the spring.
 Frame and recording drum move with the
ground.
 Inertia of the weight keeps it and the
needle relatively motionless.
Measuring Earthquakes (cont.)
 seismogram: the paper record of each
vibration
Effects of Earthquakes

 ground motion
 fire
 landslides
 liquefaction (a special type of ground failure)
 permanent displacement of the land surface
 aftershocks: small earthquakes that follow the
main shock
 Liquefaction of soil by a 1964
earthquake in Niigata, Japan,
caused earthquake-resistant
apartment buildings to topple
over intact.

An example of permanent
displacement of the land
surface – fence compressed by
ground movement, Gallatin
County, Montana, 1959.
SEISMIC ACTIVE ZONE OF INDIA:

•The Geological Survey of India (G. S. I.) first published the

seismic zoning map of the country in the year 1935. With
numerous modifications made afterwards, this map was
initially based on the amount of damage suffered by the
different regions of India because of earthquakes. Color
coded in different shades of the color red, this map shows
the four distinct seismic zones of India. Following are the
varied seismic zones of the nation, which are prominently
shown in the map:
•Zone - II: This is said to be the least active seismic zone.

•Zone - III: It is included in the moderate seismic zone.

•Zone - IV: This is considered to be the high seismic zone.\

•Zone - V: It is the highest seismic zone.

Importance of India's Seismic Zoning Map

 This kind of map is mainly used by the Department of

Disaster Management of the different state
governments in the country.
 This map helps them in planning for a natural disaster
like earthquake.
 An Indian seismic zoning map assists one in
identifying the lowest, moderate as well as highest
hazardous or earthquake prone areas in India.
 Even such maps are looked into before constructing
any high rise building so as to check the level of
seismology in any particular area.
 This in turn results in saving life in the long run.
Tsunamis
 tsunamis
(seismic sea
waves): huge
ocean wave
produced by
displacement
of the sea
floor
Do it By yourself

 Tsunami and landslides, causes, effects

and remedial measures
 http://www.brighthubengineering.com/g
eotechnical-engineering/60082-
landslides-causes-effects-and-remedial-
measures/
 You can refer this link for landslides.
 World Distribution of Earthquakes
 Circum-Pacific belt: the most important
concentration of earthquakes which encircles
the rim of the Pacific Ocean. Approximately
80% of the world;s shallow-focus quakes,
90% of the intermediate-focus quakes, and
nearly 100% of the deep-focus quakes occur
there.
 Mediterranean-Himalayan belt: a major
concentration of earthquakes which runs
through the Mediterranean Sea, crosses the
Middle East and the Himalayas, and passes
through the East Indies to meet the circum-
Pacific belt north of Australia
World Distribution of Earthquakes
 World Distribution of Earthquakes
 Benioff zones: distinct earthquake zone that
begins at an oceanic trench and slopes
landward and downward into the earth at an
angle of about 30o to 60o
 island arc: Benioff zones that slope under a
continent or a curved line of islands