Proteins

Made of long chains of

amino acids

The shape depends on its function. Proteins can be:

 Catalyst
 Antibodies
 Tissues e.g. muscle
 Hormones
 Enzymes + Catalysts
Chemical reactions in cells controlled by proteins called enzymes

BIOLOGICAL CATAYLSTS

 Enzymes are large proteins, with shape vital for function,

place where molecules fit – ACTIVE SITE

 SUBSTRATE - material/ chemical on which an enzyme acts

 The substrate in a reaction held in active site

+ either connected to another molecule or broken down
 Types of reaction
controlled by enzymes
 Builds large molecules from small molecules

 Changes one molecule to another

 Breaks down large molecules into smaller molecules

Factors affecting enzymes?
 Reaction faster when warmer

 At higher temps molecules move around more quickly so

collide more often (in given time) + with more energy.

 Too hot – enzymes stop working as active site changes shape –

enzyme denatured

 Particular pH some best in alkaline, neutral or acid conditions

 If too pH wrong for enzyme, active site changes shape –

enzyme denatured
 Enzymes in Digestion
1. Digestive enzymes are made by glands in the
digestive system

2. Digestive enzymes work outside body cells

3. Digestion – breakdown of large, insoluble

molecules into smaller soluble molecules

4. Specific enzymes digest particular food types

 Digestive enzymes to learn
Produced by Catalases the Where

Amylase Salivary glands Digestion of starch Mouth

(a carbohydrase) Pancreas Small intestine
Small intestine into sugars

Protease Stomach Breakdown of proteins Stomach

Pancreas Small intestine
Small intestine into amino acids

Lipase Pancreas Breakdown of lipids (fats + oils)

Small intestine
to fatty acids and glycerol
 Speeding up digestion
 Protease enzymes in stomach work best in acid so
glands in stomach wall produce hydrochloric acid

 Amylase + lipase work in small intestine in slightly

alkaline conditions

 Liver produces bile that us stored in the gall bladder

 Alkaline bile squirted into small intestine to

neutralize stomach acid

 Bile makes conditions in small intestine slightly

alkaline
 Uses of enzymes
Microorganisms produce enzymes the we can
use, but are costly to produce

Biological detergents contain proteases + lipases that can digest food stains.

They work a low temps than ordinary washing powders

So saves energy + money spent on electricity

Proteases used to pre-digest proteins in baby foods

 Isomerase used to convert glucose syrup into fructose syrup.

Fructose syrup much sweeter, so less needed in foods, so food less fattening

Carbohydrases used to convert starch into sugar syrup for food

In industry, enzymes allow reactions to occur at normal temps + pressures.

Traditional chemical processes need costly equipment and lots of energy to

produce high temps + pressures.
Using enzymes: advantages
 In biological washing powders they are very
effective at removing stains

 Biological washing powders can be used at lower

temps so saves energy and reduces costs

 Some enzymes used in medicine to diagnose, control

or cure disease

 In industry, costs of equipment + energy are reduced

 Using enzymes:
disadvantages
✘ People misuse washing powders, may have allergic
reactions, enzymes are enclosed in capsules, once
powered is dissolved hands can’t be placed in water

✘ May enter waterways via sewage

✘ Industrial enzymes costly to produce

✘ They denature at high temps needed to kill

pathogens in washing

✘ Fabrics like wool will be digested by proteases.

 Aerobic Respiration
Release of energy from food when oxygen is available.

Glucose + oxygen  CO2 + water + energy

Takes place continuously in plants + animals

= inside mitochondria + controlled by enzymes

 Anaerobic Respiration
During exercise:
 Muscles need more energy
 Muscles store glucose as glycogen which is converted back
If not enough oxygen reaching muscles they respire
anaerobically to get oxygen and become fatigued:
 Anaerobic respiration is incomplete breakdown of glucose
+ produces lactic acid instead of water + CO2
 The extra oxygen needed known as ‘oxygen debt’
 If you are fitter, you pay off oxygen debt quicker
 Questions
① What does do the terms ‘aerobic’ + ‘anaerobic’ mean?

② What do muscle cells need more of during exercise?

③ What are the 2 waste products of aerobic respiration?

④ What substance is stored in the muscles + can be converted to glucose?

⑤ Aerobic respiration word equation?

⑥ Why do muscles become fatigued (tired) during vigorous exercise?

⑦ What changes occur to the breathing and heart rate during exercise?

⑧ Why do blood vessels in muscles dilate during exercise?

⑨ What is meant by oxygen debt?

 Answers
① Using oxygen + respiration without oxygen

② Energy

③ Carbon dioxide + water

④ Glycogen

⑤ Glucose + oxygen  CO2 + water + energy

⑥ Lactic acid builds up in the muscles

⑦ Breathing + heart rate increase

⑧ Allows increased blood supply to muscle cells to provide oxygen + glucose

more quickly + to remove carbon dioxide faster

⑨ The amount of oxygen needed to breakdown the lactic acid in anaerobic

respiration
 BODY CELLS DIVIDE FOR
GROWTH + REPAIR

Mitosis cell division – produces 2 identical new cells

(Making identical two)

Allele: a version of a particular gene

Chromosomes: contain genetic info (alleles)

 Meiosis produces gametes (sex cells) – each gamete has
only one chromosome from original pair so all cells are
diff from each other and parent cells (Making eggs)
 Stem cells, found in bone marrow – unspecialized – can
change into diff types of body cell – differentiation
 A gene is a small section of DNA
 Each gene codes for a particular combination of amino
acids – which make a specific protein
 Chromosomes are made up of large molecules of DNA
which has a double helix structure
 Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, one pair are sex cells
boy XY, girl XX
 If the allele (gene controlling the same characteristic) masks
the effect of another it is said to be ‘dominant’, the allele
where the effect is masked is said to be ‘recessive’
 Phenotype – physical appearance of the characteristic –
dimples
 Genotype – the genetic make up - Which alleles does the
individual inherit? DD, Dd, dd
 Homozygous both alleles are same DD (dominant) or dd
(recessive)
 Heterozygous – 2 alleles are different Dd