Induced Drag

 is caused by the generation of lift. It is created by the

vortices at the tip of an aircraft's wing. The
magnitude of induced drag depends on the amount
of lift being generated by the wing and on the shape
and size of the wing. Long, thin (chordwise) wings
have low induced drag; short wings with a large
chord have high induced drag

 the greater the angle of attack, up to a critical angle,

the greater the amount of lift developed and the
greater the induced drag
 Methods of Induced Drag

 increase the span efficiency factor to as close to e = 1

as possible

 increase the wing span b (or aspect ratio AR)

 increase the free-stream velocity V¥

 Two Types of Induced Drug

 Dynamic Induced Drag

 Pressure-Induced Drag
Dynamic Induced Drag
 Pressure-Induced Drag

 which can be divided into the two types. You will

remember that the thin layer of air over the upper
surface of the wing will break away from the wing at
high angles of attack and that the flow will become
turbulent as the flow of air breaks away from the wing.
This turbulence results in pressure drag and loss of lift.
Turbulence and pressure drag also result from the flow
of air around the wingtip as the comparatively high-
pressure air under the wing flows over the wingtip to
the low-pressure area on top of the wing.
Calculation of Induced Drag
 Where:

 AR is the aspect ratio

 CDi is the induced drag coefficient (see Lifting-line theory)

 CL is the lift coefficient

 Di is the induced drag

 e is the Oswald efficiency number by which the induced

drag exceeds that of an elliptical lift distribution, typically
0.85 to 0.95

 L is the lift.
 Where:

 S is the gross wing area: the product of the wing span

and the Mean Aerodynamic Chord.
 V is the true airspeed
 Ve is the equivalent airspeed
 p is the air density
 po is 1.225 kg/m³, the air density at sea level, ISA
conditions.
 Parasite Drag

 This drag is created by the uneven surface of the

aircraft, like opening, obstruction on the skin of the
fuselage and wings.
 Types of Parasite Drag

 Form Drag

 Skin Friction

 Interference Drag
 Form Drag

 Profile drag is also known as form drag.

 is the drag produced by the action of the rotor blades being forced into the
oncoming airflow. If a rotor blade was cut in half from the front of the blade
(leading edge) to the rear of the blade (trailing edge), the resulting shape
when looking at the cross-section is considered to be the blade "profile". For
a rotor blade to produce lift, it must have an amount of thickness from the
upper skin to the lower skin, which is called the "camber" of the blade. In
general terms the greater the camber, the greater the profile drag. This is
because the oncoming airflow has to separate further to pass over the
surfaces of the rotor blade. The blade profile for a given helicopter has been
designed as a compromise between producing sufficient lift for the helicopter
to fulfil all of its roles, and minimising profile drag. To alter the amount of
lift produced by the rotor system, the angle of attack must be altered. As the
angle of attack is increased then the profile drag also increases.
 Skin Friction
 Skin friction drag is caused by the actual contact of the air
particles against the surface of the aircraft. This is the same as
the friction between any two objects or substances. Because
skin friction drag is an interaction between a solid (the
airplane surface) and a gas (the air), the magnitude of skin
friction drag depends on the properties of both the solid and
the gas. For the solid airplane, skin fiction drag can be
reduced, and airspeed can be increased somewhat, by keeping
an aircraft's surface highly polished and clean. For the gas, the
magnitude of the drag depends on the viscosity of the air.
Along the solid surface of the airplane, a boundary layer of
low energy flow is generated. The magnitude of the skin
friction depends on the state of this flow.
 Interference Drag

 Interference drag is a component of parasitic drag

which is caused by vortices. Whenever two surfaces
meet at a sharp angle on an airplane, the airflow has a
tendency to form a vortex. Drag is created by
acceleration of air in to this vortex, by doing this the
aircraft will form a low pressure area. With the help of
primary methods interference drag could be reduced,
this method will include eliminating any sharp angles
on the aircraft by a certain means.
Calculation of Parasite Drag
END