CHAPTER 2

The Chemistry of Life

 Most biological macromolecules are
polymers
• The majority of your
body weight is water.
• Most of the rest consists
of macromolecules, large
molecules with complex
structure.
• Most are polymers which
are molecules created by
joining together smaller
molecules called
monomers.
 What are Biological Molecules?

• Biological molecules
– are found in all living things
– The four main types are:
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
Carbohydrates are a common source of
dietary energy
• Carbohydrates are a
common source of
dietary energy for
animals and important
building blocks of plants.
• “Carbs” include simple
sugars and larger
molecules made from
sugars.
 Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides

• Have a molecular formula of

C6H12O6
• Contain 3 to 6 carbon atoms
– Ex. Glucose and fructose
 Carbohydrates:
Disaccharides and polysaccharides
• Disaccharides:
– Two simple sugars bonded
together
– Ex. 1 glucose + 1 fructose equals
sucrose (table sugar)

• Polysaccharides
– Made of long chains of simple
sugar subunits
– Cellulose – give rigidity to plants
– Starch – energy reserve in
plants
– Glycogen – storage molecule in
animals
– Chitin – give rigidity to insects
 Fats are also known as lipids
• Fats perform essential functions in the
human body including:
– Energy storage
– Cushioning
– Insulation
– Membrane function
– Hormone regulation
 Biological Molecules: Lipids
• Lipids
– Do not dissolve in water
– Can be energy storage
molecules in plants and
animals
• Fats – solid storage
molecules – fatty acid &
glycerol – saturated vs
unsaturated fats

• Waxes – semisolid lipids

• Steroids – vitamins,
hormones, and
cholesterol
 Biological Molecules: proteins
• Proteins
1. Act as messengers
2. Control cell processes
3. Form structural parts of
cells
4. Can carry substances
around the body
5. Can protect you from
disease
6. Speed up reactions
7. Act as receptors
(receptors on HIV)
 Biological Molecules: Proteins
(b) The parts of an amino acid
• Amino acids
– Form chains called polypeptides
– There are 20 amino acids, each
with slightly different
functions
– The exact sequence of amino
acids determines which protein
is made

(c) Amino acids join to

form a polypeptide
 Biological Molecules: Proteins
• Protein structure
– The shape of a
protein determines
its function
– Alpha-helix regions
– Pleated sheets
regions
– Disordered loops
regions
 Biological Molecules: Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic acids and
nucleotides
– DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid) and RNA
(ribonucleic acid)
• Carry the chemical code of
life
• RNA carries the
information to make new
viral particles
• 4 bases in DNA – A, T, C, G
• 4 bases in RNA – A, U, C, G

• DNA = double strand

• RNA = single strand

• A ONLY binds to T (or U if

working with RNA
• C ONLY binds with G
 Chapter 3 - Cells

The Basic Unit of Life

 Cell theory

1. All living things are

made up of one or
more cells
2. Cells are the basic
living units within
organisms, and the
chemical reactions of
life take place within
cells
3. All cells arise from
pre-existing cells
 All living organisms consist of cells.
• Some living organisms
have just one cell.
• Some living organisms
have trillions of cells.

Cells are the

fundamental
units of life.
Cells can be grouped into 2 categories

All cells on Earth can be classified

into two general kinds:
Are you a
1. Prokaryotic cells
- Bacteria
prokaryote
- Small, simple cells or a
- Single celled eukaryote?

2. Eukaryotic cells
- Plants, animals, fungi and protists
- Larger, more complex cells
- Single or multicellular
Bacteria have a few unique features
Eukaryotic cells
are bigger and
more complex
Plant and animal cells have many organelles
in common
 Opening Questions: Where does a cell
start and stop?

• What defines a cell?

• What are the boundaries of a cell?
• If we look in a microscope, how do we
know something is a cell?
• What criteria would you use?
• All cells are
surrounded by a
plasma membrane.

• Membranes regulate
the passage of
materials.
• Selectively permeable
 Membranes are made of lipids

• Plasma membranes are made from two

layers of phospholipids and integrated
proteins.
Structure of a plasma membrane
 Membranes regulate the passage of
materials
• Cells are surrounded
by a plasma membrane.
• Organelles may have
their own outer and
internal membranes.

The most important

function of any membrane
is to regulate the flow of
materials.
 Transport across membranes can be
passive or active
• Passive transport requires no energy.
– Substances move along a concentration
gradient from high to low.

• Active transport requires energy.

– Substances move against a concentration
gradient from low to high.

Active transport is like

trying to get into a
crowded club!
 Passive transport: Diffusion

• Diffusion is the
movement of
molecules from an
area of higher
concentration to
an area of lower
concentration.
 Passive transport: Osmosis

• The diffusion of
water is called
osmosis.

• Water will always

flow from an area
of higher water
concentration to
an area of lower
water
concentration.
 Passive transport: Facilitated diffusion

• Large molecules can

move through
embedded transport
proteins via
facilitated
diffusion.
• Substances still
move from an area
of higher
concentration to an
area of lower
concentration.
 Active transport requires energy to move
substances
• Active transport
involves moving a
substance from an area
of lower concentration
to an area of higher
concentration.

• Moving a substance
against its
concentration gradient
always requires an
expenditure of energy.
Active transport is usually driven by a
protein that sits within the membrane

Here, you can see a protein called the sodium-

potassium (Na+/K+) pump moving three potassium
ions into the cell.
 Cells can also transport substances by
fusing a portion of the cell membrane
• Exocytosis is the export from the cell.
• Endocytosis is the import into the cell.
 Organelles

Important landmarks
distinguish
eukaryotic cells
Only eukaryotic cells contain organelles
surrounded by membranes
• The most prominent
membrane-enclosed
organelle is the
nucleus.
• Every eukaryotic
cell (including plant
and animal cells)
contains a nucleus.
 The nucleus is surrounded by a double
membrane called the nuclear envelope
• The nucleus,
surrounded by an
envelope and
containing DNA,
directs the activities
of the cell.

• Protein-lined nuclear
pores in the nuclear
• The nucleolus is a
envelope allow certain
particular location within
molecules, such as
the nucleus.
RNA, to pass through.
• ribosome
 The nucleus houses the chromosomes
• DNA molecules are wrapped around
proteins to form fibers called chromatin.

• Each very long chromatin fiber twists

and folds to form a chromosome.
 DNA directs a cell’s activities through the
production of proteins
• DNA in the nucleus contains
the instructions for making
proteins.
• Proteins are very important
molecules in our cells. They
are involved in virtually all
cell functions.
• Several organelles are
involved in protein
manufacture

DNA RNA Protein

 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is filled
with membranes
• The smooth ER contains enzymes that produce
lipids (such as steroid hormones).

• The rough ER contains ribosomes that produce

many kinds of proteins.
Proteins are finalized and packaged in the
Golgi apparatus
• The Golgi apparatus finishes, sorts, and
ships cell products.
• The Golgi
apparatus finishes
cell products in
vesicles, small
bubbles made of
membrane.
Lysosomes are a type of vesicle that
contains digestive enzymes

• Lysosomes can dissolve large food

molecules, old cellular components, or
invasive organisms such as bacteria.
 Two organelles help provide energy for the
cell

• Chloroplasts are found

in all plant cells and the
cells of some algae.

• Mitochondria are
found in both plant and
animal cells
(mitochondrion is
singular).
The chloroplast
 Mitochondria are the organelle of cellular
respiration
• Cellular respiration
uses oxygen (O2) to
harvest energy from
molecules of sugar.

• The harvested energy

is stored as chemical
energy in molecules of
ATP, which can then
be used to power
many other cellular
processes.
 Vacuoles function in the general
maintenance of the cell
• Vacuoles are
intracellular sacs.
• Some are for
storage, such as
for food,
nutrients, or
pigments.
• Some pump water
out of a cell.
• Many plant cells have a very large
central vacuole.
 Some cells have moving appendages

• Flagella propel the

cell through their
whip-like motion.

• Cilia move in a
coordinated back-
and-forth motion.
 Some cells are supported by a rigid cell
wall surrounding the membrane

• Plant, fungus, and

some prokaryotic
cells have a rigid
cell wall.
• Plants can stand
upright, in part,
because their rigid
cell walls are made Note: Animal cells
of cellulose. do not have a cell
wall!
 Animal cells maintain their shape with an
internal cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton is a network of
protein fibers that provides mechanical
support, anchorage, and reinforcement.

The cytoskeleton
network can be
quickly dismantled
and reassembled,
providing
flexibility.
 Animal cells stick together

• Animal cells produce a sticky

extracellular matrix that helps hold
cells together.

Cells are held

together into a
tissue by the
extracellular
matrix.
Junctions Between Cells

Tight Junctions

Adhering
Junctions

Communicating
Junctions
Road Map to Success

 I can describe the functional groups of

biological molecules

 I know what carbohydrates, proteins, lipid,

and nucleic acid are and why are they
important

 I know what cell theory is

 I know that the difference between a

prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell is

 I can draw an animal cell and a plant cell. I

can label the parts and tell what each part
does