GENERAL NAVIGATION

1NAV 01
Overview

▪ The Earth
▪ Compass, Magnetic and True Directions
▪ Latitude and Longitude
▪ Departure
▪ Great Circles
▪ Convergency
▪ Rhumb Line
The Earth

▪ Is the Earth a true sphere?

▪ Oblate spheroid

▪ Polar diameter is 27 statute miles less

than the equatorial diameter

▪ 1/297th compression
The Earth

▪ GPS models the Earth as

a geoid

▪ Geoid – “earth shaped”

▪ GPS uses the WGS84

reference geoid
The Earth

▪ Inclined at 23½º to the plane

of the ecliptic

▪ Earth rotates anti-clockwise

from above NP

▪ From above the SP the Earth

rotates clockwise
The Earth
▪ Cardinal Points
- North
- South
- East
- West

▪ Quadrantal directions
- North East
- North West
- South West
- South East
True Direction

▪ Measured as an angle from

true north

▪ Three figure group

- 045º (T)

▪ Reciprocal direction
- 180º opposite
The Earth

▪ Sexagesimal system
- 360 degrees for a full
rotation

▪ North 000º
▪ East 090º
▪ South 180º
▪ West 270º
Magnetic Direction

▪ Earth has a magnetic field

▪ A compass points to
magnetic north

▪ The location of the

magnetic poles varies
Magnetic Direction

▪ Measured as an angle from

magnetic north

▪ The angle between true

direction and magnetic
direction is variation
Magnetic Direction

▪ + is East

▪ - is West

▪ Variation East Magnetic Least

▪ Variation West Magnetic Best

Variation

▪ Lines joining points of equal variation are isogonals

▪ The line joining points of zero variation is an agonic line

Magnetic Dip

▪ Angle between the compass needle and the horizontal

 H
Magnetic Dip Poles - maximum dip
Z T

T H

Equator -zero
dip

Maximum dip angle is 90º over the North and South Magnetic Poles
Compass Direction

▪ Aircraft compass is
affected by magnetic
influences

▪ Compass direction is
measured as an angle
from compass north
Compass Direction

▪ The difference between magnetic

north and compass north is
deviation

▪ Deviation East Compass Least

▪ Deviation West Compass Best

Deviation varies depending on the heading of an aircraft

Compass deviation card shows the deviation for specific headings

 Compass, Magnetic and True Direction

▪ A typical exam question may ask for the conversion of a

heading from true to compass

+ East

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Compass Deviation Magnetic Variation True

+ West
Questions
▪ The value of magnetic variation:
- Must be 0º at the magnetic equator
- Varies between a maximum of 45º east and 45º west
- Cannot exceed 90º
- Has a maximum of 180º

▪ A line drawn on a chart which joins all points where the

value of magnetic variation is zero is called an:
- Aclinic line
- Agonic line
- Isogonal
- Isotach
Questions
▪ At a specific location, the value of magnetic variation:
- Depends on the magnetic heading
- Depends on the true heading
- Depends on the type of compass installed
- Varies slowly over time

▪ If the Compass Heading is 265°, variation is 33° W and

deviation is 3°E, what is the True Heading?
- 235°
- 229°
- 301°
- 295°
Latitude

▪ Small circles on the Earth parallel to the Equator

▪ Known as parallels of latitude

Latitude

▪ Parallels of latitude are measured as an angle from the

centre of the Earth

▪ These are described as either North or South

▪ 1 degree = 60 minutes

▪ 1 minute = 60 seconds
Latitude

Question:
Find the change of
latitude between 44º30’N
and 17º35’S

Answer:
44º30’ + 17º35’
= 62º05’
Latitude

Question:
Find the change of
latitude between
87º13’S and 26º37’S

Answer:
87º13’ - 26º37’
= 60º36’
 Geocentric Latitude

▪ A parallel of latitude
measured from the
centre of the Earth is
a Geocentric Latitude

▪ However, the Earth is

an oblate spheroid
Geodetic Latitude

▪ If you draw a line at 90º

to the Earth’s surface it
gives the Geodetic
Latitude

▪ Charts show Geodetic

latitudes
Geodetic and Geocentric Latitudes

Maximum difference 11.6 minutes

▪ The Geodetic and Geocentric latitudes are only the same at
the poles and the equator

▪ The greatest difference occurs at 45ºN or 45ºS

- 11.6 minutes of arc
Geodetic Latitude

Geocentric Latitude
Longitude

▪ Meridians of longitude are measured as an angle from the

Greenwich meridian (prime meridian)

▪ These are described as either East or West

▪ 1 degree = 60 minutes

▪ 1 minute = 60 seconds
Longitude

▪ To measure true direction at our point on the Earth, use the

meridian of longitude through our current position
Longitude

Question:
Find the change of
longitude between
160º35’E and 086º54’W

Answer:
180º - 160º35’E = 19º25’
180º - 086º54’E = 93º06’

19º25’ + 93º06’
= 112º31’
Longitude

Question:
Find the change of
longitude between
140º22’W and 178º11’W

Answer:
178º11’ - 140º22’
= 37º49’
Latitude and Longitude
Distance

1 metre = 3.28 ft
1 nautical mile = 6080 ft = 1852m

▪ A nautical mile is the distance subtended by one minute of

arc on the earth’s surface

▪ There are 10,000 km from equator to pole = 5,400nm

Distance

▪ If we are given a distance calculation and the points lie

on opposite meridians (i.e. a meridian and its anti-
meridian) the shortest distance between them is over the
poles
Distance

Example:
Find the shortest distance
between 57ºN 008ºE and 83ºN
172ºW

Solution:
These are 180º longitude apart
90º - 83º = 7º
90º - 57º = 33º
33º + 7º = 40º
40 × 60 = 2400’
Departure

▪ Towards the pole, the

east/west distance
between two meridians of
longitude decreases

▪ At the poles the distance

is zero. At the equator it is
the change of longitude in
minutes
Departure

▪ Departure is the distance between two meridians at a

specific parallel of latitude
Departure

Example:
Find the departure between 47ºS 113ºE and 47ºS 172ºW

Solution:
180º - 172º = 8º
180º - 113º = 67º
Change in longitude = 67º + 8º = 75º
= 75 × 60
= 4500’

Departure = Change of Longitude × cos Latitude

= 4500’ × cos 47º
= 3069 nm
Departure Examples
Great Circles

▪ Lines forming the shortest distance between two points are

known as great circles

▪ Any circle which is not a great circle is a small circle

Small Circle

Great Circle
Great Circles

▪ Great circles have the same radius and centre as the earth

▪ Unless two points are diametrically opposite there will only be

one Great Circle that can pass between them

▪ Modern navigation systems (LORAN, INS or GPS) are needed to

fly great circle tracks
 Great Circles

▪ If you draw a straight line on the Earth its direction will have
changed

100º is measured as the angle from a

025º▪ This is because direction
given datum (the North Pole)
Convergency

▪ The shortest distance between two points on the Earth has

changing direction

▪ This is due to the converging meridians so is known as

convergency

▪ Meridians converge towards the poles and diverge away

from the poles

▪ At the equator two meridians are parallel

▪ At the poles convergence is maximum

Convergency

▪ The angle of inclination between two meridians at a specific

latitude
Convergency

▪ Example - The Equator

Convergency = Change of Longitude × sin 0º

=0
Convergency

▪ Example: The Poles

Convergency = Change of Longitude × sin Mean Latitude

Convergency = Change of Longitude × sin 90º

= Change of Longitude × 1
Convergency

▪ Example:
- Find the convergency between A (40ºN 025ºW) and B (60ºN
060ºE)

▪ Solution
- Convergency = Change of long. × sin mean lat.
- Convergency = 85º × sin 50º
- Convergency = 85º × 0.7660
- Convergency = 65º

- So the track has changed 65º from A to B

Convergency

▪ Example:
- Given that the initial great circle track from Lisbon (38ºN
009ºW) to Nassau (25ºN 078ºW) is 274ºT find the final
great circle track

▪ Solution:
- Draw the meridians sloping in to the top in the NH
- Draw a rough track (here westerly)
- Put in the angle
Convergency

Convergency = change of long. × sin mean lat.

= 69º × sin 31.5
= 36º

Final track angle is less

than the initial so:

Final track = 274º - 36º

= 238º
 Westbound Eastbound
Convergency

▪ Heading Easterly in the NH, Great Circle track will increase

D I
▪ Heading Westerly in the NH, Great Circle track NH
will decrease

▪ Heading Easterly in the SH, Great Circle track will decrease

SH

I D
▪ Heading Westerly in the SH, Great Circle track will increase
Convergency Examples
Rhumb Lines

▪ A rhumb line is a line of constant direction

▪ Rhumb line tracks are used by aircraft without modern

navigation systems – give a slightly longer route

▪ Crosses all meridians at the same angle

Rhumb Lines

▪ Rhumb lines will always lie on the equatorial side of the great
circle track

▪ At the mid point, the rhumb line and the great circle track are
parallel (in our example at 100º)
Conversion Angle

▪ The rhumb line is a line of constant direction, so must also

be at 100º at A and at B

▪ The angle between the great circle and the rhumb line tracks
at A and B are half of the convergency – known as the
conversion angle
Conversion Angle

Conversion angle = ½ convergency

Example:
Given that the initial great circle track between A (44ºS
170ºE) and B (32ºS 160ºW) is 078ºT find the rhumb line track
from A to B measured at A

Solution:
Draw meridians (this time in SH)
Draw a rough great circle track (easterly)
Add the angles
Conversion Angle

Convergency = change of long. × sin mean lat.

= 30º × sin 38
= 30º × 0.6157
= 18.5º

Conversion angle = 9.25º (9º)

From the diagram it can be

seen that the rhumb line track
Is less than 078º at A

Rhumb line track at A = 078º - 9º

= 069º
Conversion Angle Examples