UNIT -1

FILTERS
 INTRODUCTION

• A network which allows desired band of frequencies

while almost suppresses other band of frequencies is
called filter.
• In filters, attenuation changes suddenly as the
frequency is varied.
• Thus, filters have the ability to discriminate between
signals which differ in frequency.
 ACTIVE FILTERS & DISADVANTAGES

• The filters consisting active elements such as

transistors, op-amps along with resistors, capacitors,
and inductors are called active filters.
• It require additional power supplies for the operation
of active elements.
 PASSIVE FILTERS

• Passive elements such as resistors, capacitors and

inductors are used.
• None of the gains is possible.
• Inductors are heavy and bulky and hence costly.
• They do not require additional power supplies for
their operation.
 BASIC DEFINITIONS

• PASS BAND – The range of frequencies over which

attenuation by filter is zero.
• STOP BAND – The range of frequencies over which
attenuation is infinite
• CUT-OFF FREQUENCIES – The frequencies which
separate the pass band from attenuation or stop
band.
 FILTER TYPES

• LOW PASS FILTER – If filter passes all frequencies up

to the cut-off frequency and attenuates all frequency
above is called low pass filter.

• HIGH PASSS FILTER – If filter attenuates all

frequencies up to the cut off frequency and passes
all frequencies above it.
 FILTER TYPES CONT..

• BAND PASS FILTER – If filter passes all the frequencies

between the two cut-off frequencies and attenuates
all other frequencies.

• BAND ELIMINATION FILTER – If filter attenuates all

the frequencies between the two cut-off frequencies
and passes all other frequencies.
 BEHAVIOUR OF THE CHARAC TERISTIC
IMPEDANCE
For a symmetrical T network,

In a network made of pure reactances, this

expression for the characteristic impedance
becomes

where the X term carries their own signs, the

minus sign under the radical being due to j2.
 BEHAVIOUR OF THE CHARACTERISTIC
IMPEDANCE CONT..
• If the reactive network is terminated with a resistive Z0 =
R0, then the input impedance is R0, and the network can
accept power and will transmit it to the resistive load
without loss or attenuation.

• If the network is terminated in its reactive Z0, it will

appear as a totally reactive circuit and as such cannot
accept or transmit power, since there is no resistive
element in which the power may be dissipated.

• The network may transmit voltage or current, but with a

90 degree phase angle between the two and with
considerable attenuation.
 BEHAVIOUR OF THE CHARACTERISTIC
IMPEDANCE CONT..
• The stop band exists with X1 and X2 of opposite types, but
with X1 /4 X2 < -1. This implies that the product X1 X2 is a
negative term and that the bracketed term is negative.

• When combined with the negative sign, the overall sign under
the radical will be negative and Z0 will be a pure reactance in
the stop region.

• The conditions developed for pass and stop bands for T

sections can be applied for π sections

where Z1 Z2 is always real when Z1 and Z2 are pure reactances.

 CONSTANT K LOW PASS FILTER

• If Z1 and Z2 of a reactance network are unlike reactance arms,

then
Z1Z2 = k2
where k is a constant independent of frequency.
• Networks or filter sections for which this relation holds are
called constant k filters.
• Let Z1 = jωLand Z2 = jω/C , then the product
Z1Z2 = Rk2 = L/C
• The term Rk is used since k must be real if Z1 and Z2 are of
opposite type.
 CONSTANT K LOW PASS FILTER CONT..
• The pass band starts at the frequency f = 0 at which Z1=0 and
runs to the frequency fc at which Z1 = -4Z2.
• All frequencies above fc lie in a stop or attenuation band.
• The cutoff frequencies can be determined as

• This expression can be used to develop certain relations

applicable to the low pass network, then

• If the frequency f is in the pass band or f/ fc < 1 (i.e.) -1 <

Z1/4Z2 < 0, then
 CONSTANT K LOW PASS FILTER CONT..
• If frequency f is in attenuation band or f/fc >1 (i.e) Z1/4Z2 <-1,
then

thereby allowing determination of α and β.

• The attenuation α is zero throughout the pass band but rises

gradually from the cut off frequency at f/fc = 1.0 to a value of
∞ at infinite frequency.

• The phase shift β is zero at zero frequency and increases

gradually through the pass band, reaching π at fc and
remaining at π for all higher frequencies.
 CONSTANT K LOW PASS FILTER CONT..
• The characteristic impedance of a t section was obtained as

which becomes

• The characteristic impedance of a low pass filter is

• At cutoff
Z1 = -4Z2
• It is seen that
ωcL = 4/ωcC

• Using the cut off frequency equation changes this to

π2fc2LC = 1

• The value of the shunt capacitance arm is

C = 1/πfcR

• The inductance is
L = R/πfc
 CONSTANT K HIGH PASS FILTER
• All frequencies below fc lie in an attenuation or stop
band.
• The cut off frequency is determined as the frequency
at which Z1 = -4Z2, then

• The value of the shunt capacitance arm is C = 1/4πfcR

• The inductance is L = R/4πfc
• The characteristic impedance for a high pass filter is
 BAND PASS FILTER
• Passes a band of frequencies and attenuate frequencies on
both sides of the pass band.

• The cut off frequency of the low pass filter is above the cut off
frequency of the high pass filter.

• The frequencies of resonance of the individual arms should be

the geometric mean of the two frequencies of cut off

f0 = √f1f2
 Band Elimination filters
• If the series and parallel tuned arms of the band pass
filter are interchanged, the result is the band
elimination filter.
• The circuit eliminate or attenuate a given frequency
band.
• A low pass filter is connected parallel to the high pass
filter.
• The cut off frequency of the low pass filter is below
that of the high pass filter.
• As for the band pass filter, the series and shunt arms
are made resonant and anti-resonant at the same
frequency f0

f0 = √f1f2
• The values of the series arm are made are obtained
as
L1 = R(f2-f1)/πf1f2
C1 = 1/4πR(f2-f1)
• M-derived form may also be obtained.
 Filter circuit design
• A composite low pass filter is to be terminated in 500
ohms resistance.
• It must have a cut off frequency of 1000 cycles with
very high attenuation at 1065, 1250 and infinite
cycles.
• The prototype is designed as
L = 0.159 henry
C = 0.636 microfarad
• The m-derived section provide high attenuation at
f∞ = 1065 cycles, so m = 0.343
• The m-derived section providing high attenuation at
f∞ = 1250 cycles will have a value of m given by 0.6
• It is necessary to avoid electric and magnetic
couplings in making a mechanical assembly.
• Magnetic materials of very high permeability are
used (e.g. nickel alloys, powdered iron and perm
alloy)
• The inductors are wound as toriods on ring cores.
• The values of Q should be made high as possible to
improve the filter performance.
 Filter performance
• The inductors used were toriods on compressed
molybdenum-perm alloy dust cores, and had values
of Q as 40.
• The filters were designed for 500 ohms resistance
termination.
• The presence of resistance and the insertion loss of
the section causes a rounding of the attenuation
curve near cut off.
• Due to probable slight mismatches and losses, there
is a small irregularity in the pass band.
 Crystal filters
• Certain elements are made of piezoelectric crystals.
• The crystals have a resonant frequency of mechanical
vibration dependent on certain of the filter
dimensions.
• Due to vey high equivalent Q of the crystals, it is
possible to make very narrow band filters.
• The inductance L is very large for crystals resonating
near 500kc, so that while R may approximate a few
hundred or few thousand ohms, the effective Q may
be in the range of 10,000 to 30,000.
• It provide a bandwidth of 20 to 50 cycles at 500kc.
• The resistance of the crystal occurs due to
mechanical damping of electrodes and surrounding
atmosphere.
• By placing a crystal in an evacuated chamber, the
value of Q can be increased.
• The electrodes are normally electroplated onto the
crystal faces and need not introduce much damping.
• Capacitance Cs is the equivalent series capacitance of
the crystal forming a resonant circuit with L.
• Capacitance Cp is the parallel capacitance introduced
by the crystal electrodes.
• The values of Cs and Cp are such that Cp>>Cs, so that
the resonant and anti-resonant frequencies of the
circuit will lie close together, differing by the fraction
of 1 percent of the resonant frequency.
• The width of the pass band should be equal to twice
the separation of the resonant and anti-resonant
frequencies of one crystal.
• The bandwidth can be reduced by placing adjustable
capacitors in parallel with the crystal.
• By the addition of coils in series with the crystals, the
pass bands may be widened.
• If f2 and f1 are the frequencies of resonance of one of
the circuits and fR is that of the anti-resonance, then

f1,2 = fR √1±(Cs/Cp)

• The separation of the f2 and f1 represents two-thirds

of the pass band and is seen to depend on the
√Cs/Cp ratio.

• It is used to separate the various channels in carrier

telephone circuits, in the range above 50 kilocycles.
 Disadvantage of constant k-type filter
• The attenuation does not rise very rapidly at cut off,
so that frequencies just outside the pass band are
not attenuated with respect to frequencies just
inside the pass band.

• The characteristic impedance varies widely over the

pass band, so that a impedance match is not
possible.
 DISADVANTAGES OF PROTOTYPE FILTER
SECTION
• The attenuation changes sharply in the attenuation
band ideally. But in this section, the attenuation
changes gradually in the stop band, so frequencies
near cut–off frequency are passed through this filter.

• The characteristic impedance varies with frequency

through out the pass band. Hence, filter cannot be
terminated properly.
 M-DERIVED FILTER SECTIONS

• The disadvantage of prototype filter sections can be

overcome by connecting two or more prototype
sections of same type in cascade.
• The attenuation in the attenuation band gets
doubled giving much sharper cut–off characteristics
than that obtained by using only a single sections.
• But due to the resistance in the components, the
curve becomes rounded off at the cut off frequency
in pass band.
 M-DERIVED FILTER SECTIONS CONT..

• It is necessary to design a new section having

same cut off frequency as that of the prototype
section but different attenuation characteristics
in the attenuation band.
• Both the sections must have same characteristic
impedance.
• It is possible to derive a new section from a
prototype constant- k section called m-derived
section.
 ADVANTAGES OF M-DERIVED FILTER

• The attenuation characteristics can be improved by

using series resonant circuit in the shunt arm of T-
section while an antiresonant circuit in the series
arm of pi section.
• We can select a frequency of resonance of these
resonant circuits such that attenuation increases very
rapidly at that frequency up to infinity.
 APPLICATIONS
• Telecommunication systems
• Optical communication
• Microwave applications