HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

TRPO 4113

Prepared by:

ROBERT N. LAMONTE, C.E.

Instructor I
Introduction

Road building is defined as the art

and science of construction,
rehabilitation and maintenance of
existing roadway facilities.
It is a continuous process of study
and research, for up to this time
there is no definite solution yet
formulated to avert road failures.
According to the American
Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
findings, there are three identified
main causes of road failures;
1. Poor and inadequate preparation
of base.
2. Rainwater
3. Temperature
 CHAPTER I

THE HIGHWAY AND ITS

DEVELOPMENT
Brief History of Roads
Early roads with hard surfaces were found
in the land of Mesopotamia. These roads
were constructed as early as 3 500 B.C.
Another stone surface roads were found in
the Mediterranean island of Crete, similarly
constructed as those in the Western
Hemisphere by the Mayans, Aztecs and the
Incans of Central South America.
The early road systems were constructed
primarily for the following purposes:
1. For the movement of armies in their
conquest and for defense against
invasion.
2. For transport of food and trade of
goods between neighboring towns
and cities.
In 17th century, under the reign
of Napoleon the Great,
France made a great stride on
road buildings.
Jerome Tresaguet (1716-1796), the
famous French Engineer introduced
new methods of construction and
maintenance of stone roads. He
improved the crown, the drainage,
and the grade of the road, including
the stone foundation by reducing the
depth of broken stones to 25
centimeters. Tresaguet was accredited
as “Father of Modern Road Building”.
Thirty years later, a Scottish Engineer
born in Westminster Abbey, Thomas
Telford (1757-1834), president and
founder of the Institute of Civil Engineer,
introduced some improvements in the
construction methods of Jerome
Tresaguet.
England followed the ongoing highway
development started by France. The
Macadam road concept named after John
Louden Mac Adam (1755-1836), another
famous Scottish Engineer road builder and
contemporary of Telford, was developed
and widely accepted. The invention of road
building equipment enhances the
development of roads in Europe. In 1858,
Eli Blake invented the first stone crusher
and at the same time, a steam road roller
weighing 30 tons was introduced in
France by its inventor,Aveling and Porter.
Highways in the Philippines
In the early part of 1900, transportations
in this country depend largely on trails,
waterways, railroad, earth roads and
partially graveled roads. Highway in the
Philippines at that time is nothing more
than a dream to most Filipinos. The
American government initiated the
development of roadways in the
Philippines, connecting towns, cities and
provinces. The popular Macadam road
type was introduced.
After the Second World War, the new
independent Philippine government, continued
the rehabilitation and construction of roads
and bridges, through the reparations and war
damages paid by the Japanese government.
Fifty years later, major highways and
expressways were constructed through the
financial assistance and loans from foreign
banks. Alongside with the industrialization
program of government, vehicles of various
types and sizes started flooding the roadways.
Recent Land Transportation records revealed
that more than 80 000 brand new vehicles
were added to their lists every year.
At an average of 5.00 meters road
occupancy by these vehicles, the DPWH
must open 400 kilometers new roads
every year. This data did not include yet
the roadway for second hand or surplus
assembled cars. Traffic problems are
expected to worsen year after year.
The year 1960 to early part of 1980 was
considered an automobile age. Cars were
no longer regarded as luxury item but a
necessity in transporting people and
goods, a necessity for survival.
Planning Difficulties
Development and maintenance of roads
and highways is a continuing process
alongside with the technological
advancement. New equipment and
management techniques revolutionized
the construction and maintenance
methods. Advance knowledge in the field
of soils, highway materials, and designs
were adopted for reliability and economic
considerations.
Engineers are conscious of the need to be
safe, useful and attractive. They are aware
of the fact that highways are vital to the
country's development. Unfortunately,
highway planners are confronted with
problems categorized as follows:
1. Financial
2. Political
3. Technical
Appropriations of funds for road
constructions and maintenance
, meet severe difficulties that
sometimes, highway
development plans are shelves
temporarily for lack of funds.
Roads and highways plans were
either; deferred, amended or
realigned for political
reasons. As a consequence,
different laws with conflicting
purposes and procedures
impede or obstruct
implementations causing
delay or no action at all.
Politicians now control DPWH projects as their
source of political funds. Highway district engineer’s
qualification is simply subservience to the politician.
“Do what I say or get out of my district”
Rational Planning is no longer the objective process,
based on training, and expertise concerning the
actual needs of the people, but is rather, a political
decision.
Not even the Secretary of Public Works and
Highways could say no because politics is the
power that controls appropriations, budget and
appointments of the president’s cabinet members.
Highway Programming
There are three inseparable sets of inputs
involved in highway programming, they
are:
1. Economic – deals with questions of
resources.
2. Financial - the questions of who pays
and who spends. How much and
where?
3. Political and Administration – this
involves decision making
In highway programming,
projects are prioritized. Those
that are most economically
viable were selected, if they fit
into the financial capability and
of course political criteria are
abandoned, modified for
substitute, or an alternative but
shall passed rigorous tests.
Direct Effects of Highway
Construction and its Use
A. QUANTIFIABLE MARKET VALUE
1. Cost of Highway as to:
a. Planning Cost
b. Right of way appropriations
c. Construction Costs
d. Maintenance Costs.
e. Operating Costs
2. Cost benefits to highway users
a. Vehicles operating costs (including
congestion cost) net income or decrease in
travel time multiplied by the peso value of
commercial time.
b. Motorist’s safety (economic cost accident) Net
change in expected number of accident’s
times the average cost per accident per year.
B. NON-QUANTIFIABLE NON MARKET VALUE
1. Cost benefits to highway user:
a. Motorists safety – accident cost of pain
suffering and deprivation
b. Comfort and conversion – discomfort,
inconvenience and strain of driving
c. Aesthetic from driving viewpoint – benefit
of pleasing views and scenery from road.
C. QUANTIFIABLE NON-MARKET VALUE
a. Cost- benefit to highway users – traveling
savings time (non-commercial). Minutes save
per vehicle trip.
The Planner
Before any project comes to a reality, it has
undergo rigorous and careful studies with
participation of several line agencies involved.
Where proposals may be opposed or
questioned by other agencies, or in political
mill, the planner appoints coordinator or
catalysts, to work out in exchanging
information as to the needs, goals, and
alternative solutions of those who are
affected and to incorporate them into the
planning and decision making.
The Functions of the Planner
1. To prepare preliminary design, scoop of study
and the initial work program. Know the basic
needs, plan and objectives of affected persons.
2. Exploration of alternatives. Data gathering by
contacting the representatives of other
agencies involved.
3. Detailed analysis. Prepare detailed plan for
appropriate community interaction.
4. Secure formal ratification from the local
officials and have results documented. If
nothing goes wrong, this step is considered
final.
Community Involvement
In a democratic government, the public has
the right to hear and be heard. Much
more to participate in public hearing
where planning and decision making will
be conducted before major decisions are
made.
It is a common practice to call public hearing
after all major decisions were made and
approved. Public hearing should involved
the public from the start of planning to
give a chance to participate in the
discussions and involved them in:
1. Solicit the cooperation and support of
public officials, non-government
organizations, influential persons and
conservative group of the community.
2. Create special staff to carry out this
function.
3. Community leadership opportunity to
participate continuously in the planning
stage.
4. Organize and develop skilled persons to
conduct group meeting, workshops,
hearing and other related activities.
Highway Economy
A country who will not avail of loans or
grant from foreign financing
institutions will not feel great impact
of their infrastructure projects, if
domestic income through taxes alone
will be depended on. Financing
institutions such as the World Bank
insists that projects to which they
make grants or loans be justified
primarily on the economic basis.
According to W. Gillespe, professor
of Civil Engineering at the Union
College:
“A minimum of expenses is of course,
highly desirable; but the road which
is truly the cheapest is not the one
which has cost the least money, but
the one which makes the most
profitable returns in proportion to
the amount expended upon it”
There are many designs and
administrative decisions that
does not involve public policy,
but these should be made by
selecting the alternative that is
cheapest in the long run.
Meaning: the result from an
economic study that is
reasonably interpreted must
prevail.
The intent of expenditures for highways
and public transportations are
enumerated as follows:
1. To augment the country’s level of
economy.
2. To provide easy access to working
place.
3. To facilitate public services; police,
fire protection etc.
4. To facilitate medical care, schooling
and delivery of related basic services
5. To give landowner benefits to
transportation and increase
property assessment.
6. Benefit to motor vehicle users through
lower cost of operations and
maintenance.
7. Benefit in time saving.
8. Less road accident.
9. To give maximum comfort and ease of
travel.
Most of the country’s expenditures for
highways and public transport
facilities are based on the principle of
“PAY AS YOU GO”. Meaning , road
appropriations and expenditures
depend on tax collections.
Legally, the appropriation and
expenditures of taxes being the
people’s contribution to the
government must be prorated
proportionally to the different
provinces municipalities and
cities in terms of infrastructure
projects and not just be
concentrated in specific place.
Under that principle, progress of
the country would be very slow.
Hence, borrowing form foreign
banks is the ultimate
solutions of the government
to deliver impact
infrastructure projects to
boost the economy and
move quickly.
Arguments of those who favors
borrowings are:
1. The need is immediate to have
instant infrastructures.
2. No impact project will be seen
because the “pay as you go”
fund is scattered through out
the entire road system where
situation is most critical.
3. Borrowings encourage
investors because of fast
progress.
Counter Arguments of those against
financing infrastructures through
borrowing:
1. Borrowing may impair the credit
rating of government agencies
obstructing other more important
improvements.
2. If future income is committed to pay
improvements, no more funds
available to maintain the existing
system.
3. With much amount available
temptation is there to over build and
recklessly spend extravagantly.
4. Interest of the loan is a big waste for
public funds.
Computation and Survey
Early engineering approach to highway
and transportation problems were
based on the results of their
computations with the aid of slide
rule and replaced by calculator
machine. This method is time
consuming and was totally discarded
in the advent of computers and its
appurtenances.
Today, most of the agencies have
their own data processing and
reporting is done through
computer networks.
Engineering approach to
highway and transportation
problems are done through
computer output from simple
to complex matters.
Remote Sensing

Remote sensing is otherwise

called Photogrammetry. It is
the science and art of
obtaining measurements by
means of photography.
Photogrammetry is based on
aerial photographs for
engineers working data on:
1. Locations
2. Planning
3. Geometric Design
4. Right of Way
5. Traffic Studies
6. Drainage
7. Soil Classification and
Identifications
8. Earthwork Measurements
9. Material Location
10. Pavement Condition Survey
Photogrammetric Mapping
A vertical aerial photograph taken by a
camera pointed almost straight
downward is the most useful
mapping for highway purposes.
Features that cannot be identified on the
photographs are located by ground
measurements. Any important points
to be included on the ground surveys
are marked for easy identification on
the photograph.
Location of the Proposed Project
Early roads started from trails.
Movements of people and the use of
motor vehicles prompted road
agencies to improve road alignment
minimizing sharp curves. Road width
was standardized and grades were
flattened.
New highway locations are blended with
curvature grades and other roadway
elements to offer; comfortable easy
driving, free flowing traffic arteries,
comply with the rules on safety
standards.
To improve the highways, there
should be tentative plan as to the
control and minimum design
speed, roadway cross section and
maximum slope with the
following consideration;
1. Reliable cost estimate
2. Character and hourly
distribution of traffic.
3. Economic and community benefit
factor.
4. Availability of funds.
Location surveys in the rural areas
are divided into 4 stages:
1. Reconnaissance survey of the
entire area between the terminal
points.
2. Reconnaissance survey of all
feasible routes.
3. Preliminary survey of the best
route.
4. Location survey, staking of the
right of way, the highway and the
structure for construction.
Location of Bridges
Highways and bridges have but one
purpose- to convey traffic. The
location and position of a bridge is
subordinate to the general alignment
and grade. But sometimes, favorable
alignment has to be sacrificed, only to
provide a right angle crossing a small
creek.
Lately, however, the general policy for
minor roads is to determine the
proper highway location, then
provide the structures.
A skewed bridge is comparatively
more expensive than the right
angle bridge. The horizontal and
vertical curvature shape of large
bridge presents serious design
and construction problem, but
the finished product may result
to a better roadway. Foundation
design of piers and abutments
has large effect on costs, but cost
is not always the determining
factor in design.
The cost of a bridge and its full
approach combined before the
crossing site should be
determined. Bridge survey report
should be accompanied with
accurate data on the waterway
and the historical behavior of the
water. The bridge survey data
shall include the foundation
conditions, stream characteristics,
and the adjacent structure on the
stream more particularly, their
waterway opening.
Highway Plans and Specifications
Plans and specifications are sets of
documents of instructions and
conditions under which highways and
bridges are built. The plan contains
engineering drawings of the project,
whereas, the specifications is a
written instructions and conditions
considered as integral part of the
contract between the contractor and
highway agency classified as legal
documents.
The complete detailed scheme for
the road which are
incorporated in the geometric
designs are:
1. Traffic
2. Drainage
3. Erosion Control
4. Roadside development
5. Structure
6. Soils
7. Pavement
 CHAPTER II

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

Consistency
Consistency is the most important single
rule in highway design. That is, by
making every element of the roadway
conforms to the expectation of every
driver.
Drivers expect the highway agency to provide
them with:
1. Clear information and guidance
through a variety of road signs.
2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic
as well as the road standards.
If these guides and directions could
be planned properly to convey
one single message at a time, and
if these directions will be
followed smoothly and easily
without undue haste or changes
in speed, then, the roadway
facilities are considered
satisfactory. Experienced highway
engineers recommend that
highway signs and directions
should be integrated as early as
the preliminary layout studies.
Definition of Terms
AASHTO is the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials. In
1914, the American Association of State
Highway Officials (AASHTO) was
established as an association of State
Territorial and District of Columbia
Highway Department and the Federal
Highway Administration. The name was
expanded in 1973, when the Department
of Transportation was integrated into the
association renaming AASHO to
AASHTO, giving the officials of these
agency the power to govern its
operation.
AASHTO publications includes:
1. Transportation Materials
Specifications and Tests.
2. Specifications for Highway
Bridges
3. Geometric Design Standards
4. Numerous policy statements
and guides.
Road and Highways is defined
as strips of land that have
been cleared and further
improved for the movement
of people and goods.
Highways. The term was first used in England
to describe a public road built by digging
ditches on both sides and heaping up the
earth in the middle creating a way higher
than the adjacent land.
Expressway is a divided arterial
highway for through traffic
with full or partial control or
access and generally provided
with grade separation at major
intersections.
Arterial Street is an arterial route
that carries traffic to the
nearest access point or
through traffic. It often serves
as the most advantageous
routes for relatively long
distance travel
Basic Considerations in Planning Arterial
Roadways
1. Selection of the routes.
2. Studies of the traffic volume.
3. Origin and destination.
4. Accident experienced.
5. Width should not be less than 15
meters.
6. Must carry at least one lane of traffic
in each direction.
7. Should be at least one kilometer in
length.
8. Should skirt neighborhood areas
rather than penetrate them.
9. On grid design system streets,
arterials are spaced at about 600
to 900 meters apart.
10. Where accident hazard is not a
factor, the minimum volume
justify arterial road is 300
vehicles per average hour during
the day and 450 vehicles hourly
during peak hour,
Sometimes, peak hour traffic volume on designated
arterial road exceeds the capacity of two-way
streets and to increase the arterial capacity,
the following solutions are enforced:
1. During peak hours, parking is prohibited on
one or both sides of the street.
2. Parking is prohibited several meters away
from each side of the road intersections or
corners.
3. Right turn is allowed on red signals anytime
with care.
4. Left turns are eliminated on congested
intersections.
5. The direction of traffic is reversed in the
center lane to provide more lanes in the
heavier traffic flow.
Collector or Street form a smaller
mesh grid pattern where
passengers are pick up from
service streets and carried to the
arterials.
Local Road is defined as street or
road primarily for access to
residence, business, or other
adjoining or other adjoining
properties. It is also defined as a
road constructed and maintained
by the local government.
Highway Capacity is defined as the
maximum number of vehicles
that are reasonably expected to
pass a given point over a given
period of time usually expressed
as vehicles per hour.
1. Under ideal conditions, one
freeway lane can accommodate 2
000 passenger car per hour.
2. Two-lane road can carry up to 1
000 passenger cars per hour in
each direction.
There is an obvious relationship between
vehicle speed and highway capacity. As
the volume of traffic approaches capacity,
the average speed is markedly reduced.
AADT or ADT refers to traffic volume of
flow on a highway as measured by the
number of vehicles passing a partial
station during a given interval of time. It
is called “Average Annual Daily Traffic” if
the period is less than one year. Some
highway agencies use traffic volume for 5
minutes interval to distinguish short peak
movements of the vehicle.
The Design Speed
There is no single set of Geometric Standard that
will apply to all highways. For every highway
segment, decisions regarding appropriate
control for each of the many details or
requirements must be address individually or
separately.
AASHTO defined Design Speed as:
“The speed determined for design and
correlation of the physical feature of a
highway that influence vehicle operation. It is
the maximum speed that can be maintained
over a specified section of the highway when
weather and traffic conditions are so
favorable that the design features of the
highway govern.
Basic Design Features refers to the tightness and
super elevation of the curves, the sight
distances, and grade. The design speed is
basically higher than the anticipated average
speed. AASHTO recommends that:
“The design speed be set to the greatest degree
possible, to satisfy the needs of nearly all
drivers both today and throughout the road
anticipated life”.
For economic reasons, the Geometric Features of
certain road sections are designed for speed
from 30 to 50 kilometers per hour. And yet,
some motorists drive faster on straight road
alignment or less sharply curved sections.
Under this conditions, highway design
adopted control by reducing the super
elevation combined with easement
curves, delineators, stripping signs and
rumble strips, to alert motorists and
inform them that, they are approaching
sharp curves or blind curves.
Selection of the proper road design speed is
one of the most important decisions to
make, because it sets the limit to
curvature, sight distance and other
geometric figures. But because of the
limited funds, there is a strong
temptation to reduce design speed.
The AASHTO practically classify first the
highway as Rural or Urban, then as
Freeways, Arterials, Collectors and Local.
Rural collectors and local facilities are
classified as flat, rolling or mountainous.
Although the design speed presently
used is 80 km. per hour, highway
designers projected design speed up to
120 kilometers per hour to guarantee
against future obsolescence as well as
the increased margin of operating safety.
The high speed road design must
anticipate future generation high speed
vehicles and advanced transportation
systems that may operate on many of
these road alignments.
HIGHWAY SAFETY AND ACCIDENT ANALYSIS
1. Accident Rates for 100 million vehicle miles of
travel (HMVM) for a segment of a highway:
A(100,000,000)
R
ADT x N x 365 x L
Where: R = the accident rate for 100
million vehicle miles
A = the number of accidents during the
period of analysis
ADT = average daily traffic
N = time period in years
L = length of segment in miles
2. Accident Rates per million entering vehicles
(MEV) for an intersection:

A(1,000,000)
R
ADT x N x 365
Where: R = the accident rate for 1
million entering vehicles
ADT = average daily traffic entering the
intersection from all legs
N = time period in years
3. Severity Ratio
fatal  injury accidents
SR 
fatal  injury  property damage
4. Space Mean Speed of Vehicle
nd
Us 
 t1
t = sum of all time observations
1

n = no. of vehicles
d = length of a segment of the road
Us = space mean speed
5. Time Mean Speed of Vehicle:
d
 t1
Ut 
n
d = length of segment of the road
t1= time of observation
n = no. of vehicles
6. Rate of Flow:
q  kUs
q = rate of flow in vehicles/hr
K = density in vehicles/hour/mile
Us = space mean speed
7. Spacing of Vehicle
Vol. of Traffic in vehicle s/hour
No. of Vehicles per km 
Ave. Speed of car in km/hr
Average Density = no. of vehicles/km
Spacing of vehicles =1000/ ave. density
Note: 1km = 1000m
8. Time Mean Speed:
Ui
Ut  n
Ut = time mean speed

U i = sum of all spot speeds (kph)

n = no. of vehicles
9. Space Mean Speed:
n
Us 
1
U1
1
 U 1 = sum of the reciprocal of spot speeds
n = no. of vehicles
Us= space mean speed
10. Density of Traffic
q
k
Us
k = density of traffic in vehicles/km
q = flow of traffic in vehicles/hr
Us = space mean speed in kph
CE BOARD NOV. 1998
Data on a traffic accident recorded on a
certain intersection for the past 5 years
has an accident rate of 4160 per million
entering vehicles (ARMV). If the average
daily traffic entering the intersection is
504, find the total number of accidents
during the 5 year period.

Ans. 3826 (number of accidents)

CE BOARD NOV. 2000
Data on a traffic accident recorded on a
certain intersection for the past 4 years
has an accident rate of 9200 per million
entering vehicles. If the total number of
accidents is 802, find the average daily
traffic entering the intersection during
the 4 year period

Ans. 59.71
Data on a traffic accident recorded for the past 5
years on a certain stretch of a two lane highway
is tabulated as follows:
Year Property Damage Injury Fatal
1960 110 42 4
1961 210 54 2
1962 182 60 5
1963 240 74 7
1964 175 94 6
Compute the severity ratio

Ans. 0.275
Data on a traffic accident recorded, find the number
of fatal accidents in 1996 if the severity ratio for
a period of 5 years was 0.24863.
Year Property Damage Injury Fatal
1992 205 56 2
1993 178 48 3
1994 152 41 3
1995 190 60 5
1996 236 88 x
Compute the fatal in 1996.

Ans. 12
How many vehicles pass thru a
certain point in a highway
every hour if the density is 48
vehicles/mile and space mean
speed is 50 kph?

Ans. 1490
Determine the approximate spacing
of vehicles center to center in a
certain lane if the average speed
of the cars using that particular
lane is 40kph and the volume of
traffic is 800 vehicles per hour.

Ans. 50m
In an observation post show that 5
vehicles passes through the post at
intervals of 8 sec, 9 sec, 10 sec, 11
sec, and 13 sec respectively. The
speeds of the vehicles were 80kph,
76kph, 50 kph, 70kph, and 60kph
respectively.
a. Compute the time mean speed.
Ans. 67.2 kph
b. Compute the space mean speed if the
distance travel by the vehicles is 250m
Ans. 88.24kph
c. Determine the rate of flow.
Ans. 1765 vehicles/hour
Two sets of students are collecting traffic
data at two sections A and B of a
highway 200m apart. Observation at A
shows that 5 vehicles passes that
section at intervals of 8.18sec, 9.09sec,
10.23sec, 11.68sec, and 13.64sec
respectively. If the speed of the vehicles
were 80, 72, 64, 56 and 48kph
respectively,
a. Compute the density of traffic in
vehicles per km.
Ans. 25 vehicles/km
b. Compute the time mean speed
in kph.
Ans. 64kph
Cross Section of the Typical Highway
The cross section of a typical highway must consider
the following:
1. The volume of traffic
2. Character of the traffic
3. Speed of the traffic
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the
driver.
Highway design usually adopted cross section that is
uniform in thickness from end to end of the
pavement. This is acceptable on high volume traffic
road facilities. For a low volume traffic facilities,
modification of the features like the shoulders
width in rough areas are usually employed to
reduce costs. A cross section design generally
offers the expected level of service for safety and
a recent study shows that:
1. A 7.20m wide pavement has 18% less accident compared
with pavement narrower than 5.50m wide.
2. A 7.20m wide pavement has 4% fewer accidents than
6.00m wide roadway.
3. Accident records showed no difference between the
6.60mand the 7.20m wide pavement.
4. For the 6.00m, 6.60m, and 7.20m wide pavement with
2.70-3.30m wide shoulder, recorded accident decreases
by 30% compared to 0-0.60m wide shoulder. And 20%
compared with a 0.90-1.20m wide.
Originally, the total surface width of the roadway was only
4.50m, but due to the increased number of vehicles using
the roadway, the width was adjusted to 4.80-5.40m.
Lately, the width of the road was standardized to 3.00m
for first class paved one lane highway and now 3.60m
wide surface was adopted standard for freeways
and other major traffic roadways, although there are
strong demand to increase it further from 3.60-4.20 m.
For Two Lane Rural Highways, a 7.20 meters
wide surface is required for safe clearance
between commercial vehicles and is
recommended for main highways.
For Collector Roadway, 6.00m wide surface is
acceptable only for low volume of traffic
including few trucks traveling thereon.
For Local Rural Roadway, the minimum surface
width is 4.80m for a 30km/hr design
speed.
For Urban Roadway, the minimum design
width is 3.60m although 3.00m is allowed
where space is limited.
Road Shoulder
Road shoulder or verge is
defined as that portion of the
roadway between the edge of
the traffic lane and the edge of
the ditch, gutter, curb or side
slope. AASHTO requires that
its usable pavement width shall
be strong enough to support
vehicles.
Importance of Road Shoulder
1. Road shoulder serves as a place for vehicles
to stop when disabled or for some other
purposes. Road shoulder considerably
reduces road accidents.
2. The road capacity is decreased and accident
opportunity increases if the shoulder is too
narrow or omitted in the design.
3. Shoulder should be continuous along the full
length of the roadway. It also adds structural
strength to the road pavement.
4. Shoulder increases the horizontal sight
distance on curves. It reduces accident
potential when vehicle stop during
emergencies.
The Cross Slope
For high type pavement, the crown
or slope is often 1% to 2%.
However, steeper slopes are
strongly recommended because
rainwater, flow away more rapidly
reducing the water thickness on the
road pavement. A cross slope in
one direction of multi lane highways
making driving comfortable, but
with heavy rainfall, the water depth
increases on the roadway.
The paved shoulder cross slope ranges from
3%-6% although 4% is the most
common. For a gravel shoulder, 4%-6%
slope is satisfactory and 7% slope is
effective drainage for turf (grass)
surface.
Cut or Fill Slope
Earth fill of normal height is safe on a
slope of 1:2 ratios. Meaning, the first
number represents the horizontal
distance while the second number is the
vertical number.
 2 1

1 1
Earth Fill of Normal Height Cuts Through Ordinary
1: 2 Ratio Undisturbed Earth
1: 1 Ratio

Slope of cuts through an ordinary undisturbed earthfill

remain in place with a ratio of 1:1 slope. On the
other hand, rock cuts could be as steep as 1:2 and
sometimes 1:4 proven to be stable. Recently, slopes
had been generally lowered for safer operations and
to facilitate plant growth. Plant reduced erosion and
decreases maintenance costs.
Number of Lanes
The number of lanes in a segment of the highway
is determined from the estimated traffic
volume for the design year (AADT) and
highway lane capacity at expected level of
service.
Grade Line
Grade line is defined as the longitudinal profile of
the highway as a measure how the
centerline of the highway rises and fall.
The grade line appears on a profile taken along
the road centerline. It is a series of straight
lines connected by parabolic vertical curves
to which straight grades are tangent.
In laying the grade line, the designer must consider the
following:
1. Where earthwork is minimal and consistently
meeting sight distances in relation to grade line,
economy is one main consideration.
2. In mountainous areas, the grade line must be
considered balanced excavation against
embankments to get the minimum overall cost.
3. In flat area, the grade line is set almost parallel to
the ground surface but sufficiently above the
ground for drainage purposes.
4. Undesirable native soil should be provided with
sufficient covering.
5. Grade line elevations along the river or stream, is
governed by the expected level of water flood.
Right of Way
An acquisition of land for the right of way is very
costly. Based on experience from the past,
highway agency now consider it a good
practice to acquire right of way wide enough
to sufficiently provide for the ultimate
expected development.
A successful freeway or expressway operations,
closes the roadway from direct access to
adjoining property and some local roads or
streets. If the local traffic and land use are to
be opened, it must be served by service
roads originally planned as part of the main
freeway.
Stopping Sight Distance

The stopping sight distance is

defined as the longest distance
that a driver could see the top
of an object 15cm (6”) above
the road surface where the
design height of the driver’s
eye above the pavement is
105cms.
Stopping Sight Distance
The stopping sight distance is defined as the
longest distance that a driver could see the
top of an object 15cm (6”) above the road
surface where the design height of the
driver’s eye above the pavement is 105cms.
Passing Sight Distance
The passing sight distance is the longest distance
that a driver can see the top of an incoming
vehicle where the driver’s eye level is
1.05meters above the pavement surface.
Sight Distance Formula on Parabolic Summit Curve

when S<L

h1 h2
S
PC PT
𝐿

𝐴𝑆 2
𝐿=
200( ℎ1 + ℎ2 )2

when S>L

PC 𝐿 PT h2
h1
S

200( ℎ1 + ℎ2 )2
𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
𝐴
Sight Distance Formula
V2
S  Vt 
2 g ( f  G)

Where:
v = velocity of vehicle in m/s
t = perception or reaction time
g = gravity or 9.81m/s2
f = coefficient of friction
G = grade of the back tangent or the slope
of the pavement
Sight Distance on Parabolic Sag Curve
when S < L 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒

ℎ2 𝑃𝑇
𝑃𝐶 ℎ1 ℎ1 + ℎ2
𝐶 2

ℎ
𝑔1 𝑔2

𝑉
𝑆
𝐿

S 2 (g 1  g2 )
L
8h
Sight Distance on Parabolic Sag Curve
when S > L
𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒

ℎ1 ℎ1 + ℎ2 ℎ2
𝐶 2
𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝑇
ℎ

𝑔1 𝑔2

𝑉
𝐿
𝑆

2 S ( g 1  g 2 )  8h
L
( g1  g 2 )
Sight Distance Formula when h1 and h2 are not
given
For Parabolic Summit Curve
when S < L
AS 2
L
915

When S > L
915
L  2S 
A
For Parabolic Sag Curve

when S < L
AS 2
L
122  3.5S

When S > L

122  3.5S
L  2S 
A
Sight Distance Formula when h1 and h2 are not
given
For Stopping Sight Distance
when S < L
AS 2
L
425
When S > L

425
L  2S 
A
For Allowable Speed of vehicle passing thru
Parabolic Sag Curve
AV 2
L
395

where:
L = length of sag curve in meters
A = sum of grades in percent
V = allowable speed of the vehicle in
kph
RECTILINEA R MOTION
Vf  Vi  2aS
2 2

Vf  Vi  at
1 2
S  Vi t  at
2
where :
Vi  initial velocity
Vf  final velocity
S  distance traveled after elapsed time t
a  acceleration
Problem:
A vertical curve has a descending grade of -1.2% starting from
the PC and an ascending grade of +3.8% passing through the
PT. The curve has a sight distance of 180m.
a. Compute the length of the vertical curve. (Ans. 215.43m)
b. Compute the maximum velocity of the car that pass thru
the curve. (Ans. 130.46kph)
c. Compute the distance of the lowest point of the curve
from the PC. (Ans. 51.70m)

Problem:
The design speed of a vertical sag curve is equal to 100kph.
The tangent grades of the curve are -2% and +3%
respectively.
a. Compute the length of the curve in meters. (Ans.
126.60m)
b. Compute the sight distance in meters. (Ans. 115.39m)
c. Compute the length of minimum visibility in meters. (Ans.
57.70m)
Problem:
A vertical summit curve has a back tangent of +2% and a
forward tangent of -3% intersecting at station 10 + 220.60m
and elevation of 200m. The design speed of the curve is 80kph.
Assuming coefficient of friction is 0.30 and perception reaction
time is 2.5s.
a. Compute the safe stopping sight distance. (Ans. 134.19m)
b. Compute the length of the curve when h1 and h2 are
1.14m and 0.15m respectively. (Ans. 212.64m)
c. Compute the elevation of the highest point. (Ans.
198.72m)

Problem:
A vertical sag parabolic curve has a length of 141m with tangent
grades of -1.5% and +2.5% intersecting at station
12+640.22 and elevation of 240m above sea level.
a. Compute the length of the sight distance. (Ans. 152.44m)
b. Compute the maximum speed that a car could travel to
avoid collision. (Ans. 118kph)
c. Compute the stationing of the lowest point of the curve.
(Ans. 12 + 622.595)
Problem:
A car runs 48m from the brakes were suddenly applied
until it stopped. The road grade is 2% up hill and the
coefficient of friction between the tires and the road
surface is 0.35.
a. What was the speed of the car in kph, just before the
application of the brakes. (Ans. 67.21kph)
b. Compute the speed if the road grade is 2% downhill.
(Ans. 63.46kph)

Problem:
A driver traveling at 50mph is 80m from a wall ahead. If
the driver applies the brake immediately at a reaction
time of 2 seconds and begins slowing the vehicle at
10m/s2.
a. Find the distance from the stopping point to the wall.
b. Determine the braking time or time during
deceleration.
c. Assuming the brake efficiency of the vehicle is 70%,
find the average skid resistance of the pavement.
Problem:
The driver of a car traveling 70kph requires 48
meters to stop after the brakes have been
applied. What average coefficient of friction was
developed between the tires and the pavement?
(Ans. 0.40)

Problem:
A car was traveling at a speed of 50mph. The
driver saw a road block 80m ahead and
stepped on the brake causing the car to
decelerate uniformly at 10m/sec2. Find the
distance from the road block to the point
where the car stopped. Assume perception
reaction time is 2 sec. (Ans. 10.28m)
Road Alignment
Road alignment should be
consistent. An abrupt change from
flat to sharp curves and long
tangents followed by sharp curve
should be avoided because it will
create hazard and invite accident.
Similarly, designing circular curves of
different radius from end to end or
compounded curve is not a good
practice, unless suitable transitions
between them are provided.
A long flat curve is acceptable at all
times. It is pleasing to look at,
with less probability of future
obsolescence. Alignment should
be provided with tangent
because there are drivers who
hesitate to pass on curves. A
short curve appears like kinks. A
long flat curve is preferred for
small changes in direction.
Circular Curves
A vehicle traveling in curved road is
subject to centrifugal force. This
force is balanced by equal and
opposite forces developed through
the super elevation and side
frictions. However, neither the side
friction on the super elevation,
could overcome nor exceed the
maximum control limit on the
sharpness of the curves with a
prescribed design speed.
The sharpness of the curve is dependent on
its radius. Sharpness is expressed in
terms of the curve degrees, and the
degrees of curve is inversely
proportional with the radius.

1145 .916
R (arc basis)
D
20
R (chord basis)
D
The degree of the curve is expressed either
by the Arc Definition or the Chord
Definition
SIMPLE CURVE
𝑉
𝐼

𝑇 𝑀
𝑇

𝐿𝐶𝑢
𝐸
𝑃𝐶
𝑃𝑇

𝑅 𝑅

𝐼
STA. PC  STA.V - T
STA. PT  STA.PC  LC U
I
T  RTAN
2
20I
LCU 
D
1145.916
D (ARC BASIS)
R
LC U  LENGTH OF THE CURVE
D  DEGREE OF THE CURVE
T  TANGENT DISTANCE
R  RADIUS OF THE CURVE
The tangent distance of a 3°
simple curve is only ½ of its
radius.
a. Compute the angle of
intersection. (ans. 53.13°)
b. Compute the length of curve.
(ans. 354.20m)
c. Compute the area of the fillet
of a curve. (ans. 5304.04)
The maximum allowed super elevation
rate before was 0.12 but now it is
0.10 except on low volume gravel
roads. The Policy on Geometric
Design recommend that:
1. For the design speed of 50
kilometers per hour, the normal
cross slope is 1°21’ or even flatter.
2. For 120 kilometers per hour design
speed road, the normal cross slope
is 0°15’ or flatter curves without
super elevation.
SUPER ELEVATION – RUN OFF

Slope
e = superelevation

shoulder
ditch shoulder
lane

SUPER ELEVATION OF CURVES

Curve sections of roadways are
usually super elevated. Provisions
for gradual changes from one
point to the other should be
considered. The centerline of
each individual roadway at profile
grade is maintained while raising
the outer edge and lowering the
inner edge to attain the desired
super elevation.
Widening of Curves
A provision for a wider roadway is necessary
on sharp curve for two lanes pavement
under the following reasons:
1. To force the drivers to shy away from
the pavement edge.
2. To increase the effective transverse
vehicle width for non-tracking of front
and rear wheels.
3. To give additional width due to the
slanted position of the front wheel to
the roadway centerline.
4. For a 7.20 meters wide roadway, an
additional width of 30 centimeters is
necessary on an open-curve highway.
CHAPTER 3:
SOIL
Soil and its Origin
From the earliest civilization up to the
present time, soil is the most important
material that influenced mankind in his
struggle for survival. The material where
man grows his food, build homes, roads
and ultimately his final destination.
In highway construction, soil is the
material used to build with, or on that
acts in combination with other forces
of nature to make structures and land
forms.
Soil may be defined as the accumulation
of unconsolidated sediments and
deposits of solid particles as a result of
the integration of rocks. On the other
hand, rocks may be defined as natural
aggregate of minerals connected by
strong bonding of attractive forces
classified as consolidated materials.
Scientifically, most of the non-organic
materials identified as soil has originated
from rocks as the parent material. Rock
types are classified into three major
classes in accordance with their own
origin or method of formations:
 1. Igneous Rocks
2. Sedimentary Rocks
3. Metamorphic Rocks
Igneous Rocks is the result from the cooling and
hardening of molten rock called magma that has
originated from deep within the earth. The rapid
cooling of molten magma called lava which was
blown up by volcano solidifies into small crystal
and possesses fine interlocking texture. The
molten lavas that rapidly cooled on the earth
surface are volcanic rock types called basalts,
rhyolites and andesites. The molten rocks that
were trapped deep below the surface of the
earth, cooled slowly, and the mineral components
forms into large interlocking crystals and coarse
textured rocks classified as plutonic types of
which, granite is the most common.
Igneous Rocks

Andesite Basalt
Igneous Rocks

Diorite Gabbro
Igneous Rocks

Granite Pumice
Igneous Rocks

Rhyolite Tuff
Sedimentary Rocks

Breccia Chert
Sedimentary Rocks

Coal Conglomerate
Sedimentary Rocks

Iron Ore Limestone

Sedimentary Rocks

Rock Salt Sandstone

Sedimentary Rocks

Shale Siltstone
Metamorphic Rocks

Amphibolite Gneiss
Metamorphic Rocks

Marble Quartzite
Metamorphic Rocks

Schist Slate
Sedimentary Rocks are formed from
accumulated deposits of soil
particles or remains of certain
organisms that have harden by
pressure or cemented by materials.
Examples are:
1. Limestone
2. Dolostone
3. Shale – are formed from deposited
clay and silt particles
4. Conglomerate
5. Breccia
Metamorphic Rocks are rocks resulted
from metamorphism due to changes
in temperature, pressure and plastic
flow, changing the original rock
structure and mineral composition
of the rock.
Categories of Soil
Soil can be divided into two categories,
namely:
1. Residual Soil
2. Transported Soil
Residual Soil or Sedimentary Soil is
formed from the weathering of
rocks or accumulation of organic
materials remained at the location
of their origin. Weathering may be
mechanical, chemical and solution
weathering.

Mechanical Weathering refers to

physical disintegration due to effects
of wind, rain, running water or
tectonic forces (earthquake).
Chemical and Solution Weathering is
decomposition of rock due to
chemical reactions that occur as a
result of exposure to atmosphere,
temperature changes, reaction with
water or other materials. Likewise,
climate, topography, drainage and
vegetative cover have great
influences on the chemical or
solution weathering process.
Transported Soils are those materials
transported from their place of
origin.
Types of Soil
The major categories of soils are:
1. Gravel
2. Sand
3. Silt and Clay
Gravel and sand are universally known
as coarse grain soil because of their
individual particles that are large
enough to distinguish without
magnification. On the other hand,
silt and clay are considered as fine
grain soil because of their tiny
particles.
Particles larger than gravel are
commonly referred to as cobbles or
boulders. On the other hand, fined
grained soil is classified as either silt
or clay not on the basis of particle
size but on the plasticity or non
plasticity of the materials.
Over a varying range of moisture
content, clay is plastic and sticky.
When dried, it possesses strong
resistance to crushing. Silt soil has
little or no plasticity and when
dried has very little or no strength
at all
If a small amount of moist silt sample
is shaken on the palm of the
hand, water will appear on the
surface of the sample but
disappear when shaking stops.
This phenomenon is called
dilatancy. Sand mixed with silt is
classified as silty sand, whereas silt
and clay mixture with mostly clay
is called silty clay.
Characteristics of Soil
Soil consists largely of minerals formed
by disintegration or decomposition
of rocks. Disintegration or
decomposition into soil may be
caused by the action of water or
other natural forces like
temperature change, or by plant or
animal life.
Soils contains humus and organic acids
resulted from decay of vegetation.
All soils contain water, either free
or absorbed in varying contents.
It is very common to encounter five to ten
or more distinct types of soil along a
kilometer of road. Change of soil types
at frequent intervals has become a rule
rather than exemption. Behavior of soil
mass could be determined based on the
characteristics of individual soil particles
such as:
1. Grain size
2. Grain shape
3. Surface texture and electrical surface
charges, resulted from chemical
composition and molecular structures.
General Characteristics and Classification of
Soil Particles
1. Gravel
2. Coarse Sand
3. Fine Sand
4. Silt grain
5. Clay
6. Colloidal Clay
Gravel consists of rock fragments more or
less rounded by water action or
abrasion classified according to the
following types:
a) Quartz is the hardest of
common rock forming mineral.
b) Well Rounded Pebbles and
Boulders are those that
undergone long period of wear
that become almost quartz.
c) Slightly Worm Gravel is rough
and angular including other
materials or rock like granite,
schist, basalt or limestone.
Fine Sand has particles that are
more angular than the coarse
and fine sand particles.
Coarse Sand is usually rounded like
gravel with which it is found and
generally contains the same
materials.
Silt Sand is similar to fine sand with
the same mineral composition. It
contains pumice, loess, materials
foreign to the associated sand.
Clay is plate like, scale like or rod like in
shape as a result of chemical
weathering. Because of their smaller
sizes, its performance is influenced
by moisture and surface chemistry.
Colloidal clay is a finer clay particle that
remains suspended in water and
does not settle under the force of
gravity.
Coarse grain materials are considered
satisfactory construction material.
Important Grain Shape Characteristics
1. Rounded particles extracted from the
stream that has undergone wear are
considered strong materials.
2. Flat and flaky particles that were not
subjected to wear, are weak and variable
that is not suitable for various used.
3. Angular or roughly cubical shape particles
produced from crushing strong and tough
rocks, increases the resistance of soil mass
to deformation when subjected to load due
to individually interlocking grains.
4. Generally, the rounded particle has the
tendency to roll over each other when
subjected to load.
Classifications of Soils
a. Textural Classification
b. Unified Soil Classification System- was
introduced by the US Army Corps and the
Bureau of Reclamations.
Composition of Soil
Soil deposit consists of solid particles and void
spaces between particles, either partially or
completely filled with water. Void spaces not
completely filled with water, are either filled
with air or other gases. Therefore, soil
deposits are composed of solid, liquid and
gas.
Engineers are interested to know the
properties of soil deposit, especially
the strength and compressibility
because they are necessary in
determining the bearing capacity
and stability of the foundation.
Strength and compressibility of the
soil is directly related to:
1. Soil density weight per unit volume
2. Water content of the soil
3. Void ratio
4. Degree of Saturation
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VOLUME AND MASS WEIGHT

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠 = 𝑉𝑣
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑖𝑟 = 0 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑖𝑟 = 𝑉𝑎

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑉
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑊

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑊𝑤 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑤

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑀𝑤

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 𝑊𝑠
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙) 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 𝑀𝑠
Void Ratio
 the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids
Vv
e
Vs
Porosity
 the ratio of volume of voids to the total volume
e
n
1 e
Degree of Saturation
 the ratio of volume of water to volume of voids
Vw
S
Vv
wGs

e
Moisture Content
Ww
w
Ws
Unit Weigh t
 the weight of soil per unit volume
or sometimes called moist unit weigh t
W

V
Dry Unit W eight
 the weight per unit volume of soil, excluding water
Ws
d 
V
Gs  w

1 e
Moist Unit Weight
   d (1  w)
Dry Unit W eight
Gs γ w
γd 
1 e
Void Ratio of Saturated Soil
e  wGs
Saturated Unit Weig ht of Soil
(Gs  e) w
sat 
1 e
Density of Soil
(1  w)Gs  w

1 e
 w  1000kg/m 3 (densityofwater)
Dry Density
Gs  w
d 
1 e
Saturated Density
(Gs  e)  w
 sat 
1 e
Effective Unit Weig ht of Soil, Submerged Unit Weig ht, Buoyant Unit Weight
(Gs - 1) w
'
1 e
Hydraulic Gradient for quicksand condition
Gs  1
i cr 
1 e
Air Void Ratio
Air Void Ratio  n(1 - s)
e - wGs

1 e
Zero Air Void Ratio
Gs  w
 zav 
1  wGs
Relative Density
1 1

 dmin  d
Dr 
1 1

 d min  d max
 d max  dry unit weigh t in the densestcondition
 dmin  dry unit weigh t in the loosest condition
e max - e

e max  e min
e  in - situ void ratio
e max  void ratio of the soil in the loosest condition
e min  void ratio of the soil in the densestcondition
Problem #1
The moist unit weight of a soil is
19.2kN/m3. Given that Gs = 2.69
and water content is 9.8%.
Determine:
a. Dry Unit Weight
(Ans. 17.49kN/m3)
b. Void Ratio
(Ans. 0.508)
c. Porosity
(Ans. 0.337)
d. Degree of Saturation
(Ans. 51.89%)
Problem #2
A saturated soil has a moisture
content of 38% and a specific
gravity of 2.73.
a. Compute the void ratio.
(Ans. 1.04)
b. Compute the porosity.
(Ans. 0.51)
c. Moist Unit Weight
(Ans. 18.12kN/m )
3
CE BOARD NOV. 2007
A soil sample has a mass of 1830g. taken
from the field having a volume of
1x10-3 m3. It has a specific gravity of
2.60 and a water content of 10%.
Values of emax = 0.63 and emin =
0.44.
a. Compute the dry unit weight.
(Ans. 1664kg/m3)
b. Compute the void ratio.
(Ans. 0.56)
c. Compute the relative density.
(Ans. 36.8%)
 CHAPTER 4
SOIL TEST AND SURVEY
Soil Survey
The preliminary investigation of soil is an integral
part of highway reconnaissance and
preliminary location survey. In fixing the
position of the roadway, the following should
be considered:
1. Soil conditions
2. Directness of the route
3. Topography
4. Right of way
5. Neighborhood disruption
6. Environmental consideration
The early phase of soil survey is the collection of
information gathered from the following:
1. Identification of soil types from: geological and
agricultural soil maps, aerial photographs and
other sources.
2. Investigation of ground water conditions,
examining existing roadway cuts and other
excavations.
3. Review of the design and construction procedures
and present condition of roads that traverse the
area.
4. Soil exploration along the right of way using auger
boring and test pile. Sampling should be at
frequent intervals to fix the boundaries of each
soil types.
5. Test holes should extend to a significant depth
below the sub-grade elevation with recommended
depth.
6. The location, nature of the ground, origin
of parent materials, landform and
agricultural soil name, should be
recorded.
7. Each soil layer is described according to
thickness, fixture structure, organic
content, relation contents and
cementation. The depth of seepage
zones of free water table and bedrocks
are also recorded.
8. The soil profile along the roadway
centerline showing location or test hole
range of soil profile characteristics for
each district type of soil is plotted.
Along with the first reconnaissance and
preliminary location survey, the highway
agencies make a detailed study of the
following data.
1. The vertical and horizontal location of the
proposed construction.
2. Location and evaluation of suitable borrow
and construction materials.
3. Need for the type of subgrade or
embankment foundation treatment and
drainage.
4. Need for special excavation and dewatering
techniques.
5. Development of detailed sub-surface
investigations for specific structures.
6. Investigations of slope stability in both cuts
and embankments
 CHAPTER V
ROAD MATERIALS
Aggregates
Aggregates intended for either
Bituminous (asphalt) or Portland
cement concrete pavement, should
be of good quality in accordance
with the requirements of AASHTO
standard or Item -703 of the
Department of Public Works and
Highways specifications which
generally provides that:
“The aggregates shall consist of hard durable
particles or fragments of crushed stone,
crushed slag, or crushed rock or natural
gravel.”
Aggregates to be classified as good quality,
must undergo various test enumerated
as follows:
1. Test for strength
2. Test for soundness
3. Test for affinity and swell
4. Test for shape and texture
5. Test for resistance to polishing
6. Degradation Test.
Aggregate for Bituminous Pavement
Generally, for bituminous or asphalt pavement,
the aggregates constitute 88% to 96% by
weight or more than 75% by volume.
AASHTO standard specifications provides
that:
“The aggregates shall consist of hard durable
particles of fragments of stone or gravel and
sand or other fine mineral particles free
from vegetable matter and lumps or balls of
clay and of such nature that it can be
compacted readily to form a firm, stable
layer. It shall conform to the grading
requirements shown in the following table.
 Grading Requirements
Sieve Designation Mass Percent Passing
Standard Alternate Grading A Grading B Grading C Grading D
(mm) US Std.

25 1” 100 100 100 100

10 3/8 50-85 60-100
5 No. 4 35-65 50-85 55-100 70-100
2 No. 10 25-50 40-70 40-100 55-100
0.5 No. 40 15-30 25-45 20-50 30-70
0.75 No. 200 5-20 5-20 6-20 8-25
The following materials are classified under item 300
of the DPWH standard specifications.
1. Coarse aggregate materials retained on 2mm
(No. 10) sieve shall have a mass percent of wear
by the Los Angeles Abrasion Test (AASHT T-96)
of not more than 45.
2. When crushed aggregate is specified, not less
than 50 mass percent of the particles retained on
the 4.75mm (No. 4) sieve shall have at least one
fractured face.
3. The fraction passing the 0.75mm (No. 200) sieve
should not be greater than 2/3 of the fraction
passing the 0.425mm (No. 40) sieve.
4. The fraction passing 0.425mm (No. 40) sieve shall
have a liquid limit not greater than 35 and a
plasticity index range of 4 to 9 when tested by
AASHTO T-89 and T-90 respectively.
Aggregate for Portland Cement Concrete
Pavement
In order to obtain high quality concrete, road
agencies have imposed almost without
exception that all aggregates shall pass
appropriate test for strength, soundness,
wear or the combination of these three.
1. The presence of organic impurities in the
aggregates intended for concreting road
pavement may cause slow or non-hardening
of the concrete. Under AAHSTO T-21
standard test, the aggregate is treated with a
mixture of sodium hydrochloride solution
and when the treated aggregate turns dark,
organic materials are said to be present in
the aggregate.
2. The strength of fine aggregate is measured by
the compression tests of sand-cement
mortar.
3. Soundness of fine aggregate is measured by the
resistance to deterioration under the action
of Sodium of Magnesium Sulfate. The sodium
sulfate tests are five cycles. The maximum
loss under AASHTO specification is 10%.
4. For coarse aggregate, the requirement consists
of crushed stone, gravel, blast furnace, slag,
or approved inert materials of similar
characteristics or combination thereof
having hard, strong durable pieces free from
adherent coatings.
AASHTO FINE AGGREGATES GRADING BY WEIGHT

Percent Passing
3/8” sieve 100
No. 4 sieve 95-100
No. 16 45-80
No. 50 10-30
No. 100 2-10
 MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF DELETERIOUS MATERIALS
PERMITTED IN COARSE AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE
(AASHTO M-80)

MATERIALS MAX. ALLOWABLE PERCENT BY WEIGHT

PAVEMENTS BRIDGE DECK
Chert (2.40 sg) 3.0% 3.0%
Coal and Lignite 0.5 0.5
Clay Lumps 3.0 2.0
Materials Passing No. 200 1.0 1.0
sieve

Sodium Sulfate Soundness 12 12

Magnesium Sulfate 18 18
The Department of Public Works and Highways
Standard Specifications classify aggregate under item
703 and specifically provides that:
a. Aggregate shall consists of hard, durable particles
or fragments of crushed stone, crush slug or
crushed or natural gravel. Material that breaks up
when alternately wetted and dried shall be
discarded.
b. Coarse Aggregate is the material retained 2mm
(No. 10) sieve and shall have a percentage of water
not more than 50 for subbase and not more than
45 for base and surface courses as determined by
AASHTO designation test T-96.
c. Fine Aggregate is the material passing the No. 10
sieve (2.00mm) consisting of natural, crushed sand,
and fine mineral particles. The fraction passing the
0.075mm (No. 200) sieve should not be greater
than 0.66 (2/3) of the fraction passing the 0.425mm
(No. 40) sieve.
d. For Base Course, the fraction passing the
0.425mm (No.40) sieve shall have a liquid
limit of not more than 25 and a plastic
index (PI) not greater than 6. For subbase
course, the liquid limit should not be
greater than 35 and Plastic Index not
greater than 12.
e. For Surface Course, the fraction passing
the 0.425mm (No. 40) sieve shall have a
liquid limit not more than 35 and
Plasticity Index not less than 4 nor
exceed 9.
Mineral Filler

The strength of road pavement will be increased if

dust additives which dense the graded mixture is
added. It is called mineral filler that reduces void
contents in the mixture. This dust additive is not
the ordinary dust that is being found in our floor
or tables.
Dust additives is classified into:
a. Finely Powdered limestone
b. Slag
c. Hydrated Lime
d. Portland cement
e. Trap Rock Crust
f. Fly Ash
The DPWH Standard Specifications relative to
mineral filler states that:
“Mineral filler shall consist of finely divided mineral
matter such as rock dust, slag dust, hydrated lime,
hydraulic cement, fly ash or other suitable
mineral matter. It shall be free from organic
impurities and at the time of use shall be
sufficiently dry to flow freely and shall be
essentially free from agglomerations”

AASHTO M-17 provides that:

Percentage passing by weight shall be as follows:
No. 30 (0.66mm) sieve 50
No. 50 (0.30mm) sieve 95-100
No. 200 (0.075mm) sieve 70-100
AASHTO further stipulates that all minerals other
than hydrated lime or Portland Cement, the
Plastic Index (PI) value shall be 4 or less.

BITUMINOUS MATERIAL

Bituminous material or Asphalt in short, is a

viscous liquid used as binder for aggregates in
road construction. At normal temperature,
asphalt is either slightly thicker than water or
hard but brittle material that breaks under a
hammer blow when cold.
1. Bituminous material is in liquid form when mixed
or combined with aggregates. This liquid form
may be produced either by heating the hard
asphalt, by dissolving in solvent or by emulsifying
in water.
Test for Particle Size
Different soil has different characteristics
affecting the performance of each
individual soil by moisture content and
density. There are several kinds of
physical test that have been developed
to measure soil performance issued and
recommended by AASHTO and ASTM.
The sieve analysis is the process being used
to determine the particle sizes of gravel
and fine aggregates. A sample of the
material is thoroughly dried and shaken
through series of sieves ranging from
coarse to fine. The amount on each sieve
is weighed and recorded.
Test to Evaluate the Effect of Moisture
Consistency of the soil varies from semi-solid to
plastic then, to liquid if water content is
increased.
1. The Liquid Limit Test
The AASHTO Designation T-89 on liquid limit
signifies the percentage of moisture at which the
sample changes by decreasing the water from
liquid to plastic state. When the sample is wet
than the liquid limit, a grooved sample of the soil
in a cup will flow when lightly jarred 25 times. On
the other hand, if the sample is jarred at the liquid
limit, water separates the soil particles just wide
enough to remove the soil mass shearing
strength. Several tests on each sample are
required to reach the moisture content wherein
the groove in the sample is required to close at
exactly 25 blows.
2.The Plastic Limit
AASHTO Designation T-90 signifies the percentage of
moisture wherein the sample changes with lowering
wetness from plastic to semi-solid condition. At this
stage, the soil mortar starts to crumble when rolled into
threads 1/8” diameter. Additional water will make the
soil plastic, but sands are nonplastic material that its
non-plastic limit cannot be determined.
3.The Plasticity Index
AASHTO Designation T-91 is defined as the numerical
difference between its liquid limit and its plastic limit. It
is also referred to as the percentage of dry weight. In
some combination, it measures;
a.The fineness and shapes of the soil particles.
b. The interplay of the attractive forces tending to hold
the clay mineral flakes together.
c.The thickness and velocity of the water film
d.The quantity and electrical charges of the cations.
4.The Shrinkage Test
Shrinkage test measures the changes in volume
and weight that occur as partly mixture of soil
and water (except sieve No. 40). Sample is dried
from near liquid limit to constant weight of
110°C. The results are stated in terms of
shrinkage limit, volumetric change and lineal
shrinkage.
Higher value of shrinkage factor showed that the
soil will give more trouble and problem. The
volume of a certain soil increases when it absorbs
water. Soils that are suitable for subgrade and
base course are those that expand very little
when moistened. And those that swell more are
considered as poor materials. A common soil
specimen requires volume change limit of 1% for
base coarse materials.
5. Hand Feel Test
Experienced soil engineers employ the “hand feel
test” to approximately predict the plasticity index
of the soil.The test may include:
a. Thread toughness at moisture content
approximating the plastic limit.
b. The air-dried strength.
c. Dilatancy
Soil mortar possessing high plastic index will produce
tough threads and high strength without
dilatancy.
On the other hand, soils having low Plastic Index (PI)
will react in an opposite manner. Skilled soil
technician could on the basis of this test predict
the Plastic Index with standard error of about 1%.
Clean sand with some rocks and certain other
materials are classified as non-plastic
materials because they cannot be rolled into
threads as required in determining the
plastic limit.
As a rule:
1. Non-plastic soils are excellent type of road
materials when properly confined under
wearing course.
2. A well graded rock dust form hard durable
surface when wet and compacted.
3. Clean sand displace easily under load and
their use as fill or base course create
problems, but they may have other desirable
feature such as facilitating sub-surface
drainage.
6. Sand Equivalent Test
AASHTO Designation T-176 is for field
determination of the presence of
undesirable quantities of clay-like
materials in soil. Aggregate mixture is
based on the volume, rather than on
weight. The sand equivalent is the ratio
between the height of the sand column
(laboratory experiment test) and the
combined height of sand and expanded
saturated clay expressed in percentage.
Higher values of sand equivalent indicate
superior materials.
Density Test of Soil
The density of soil or weight per cubic foot varies
with the peculiarities of the soil itself, the moisture
content, and the compacted device plus the
method of their use. The standard weight of soil
per cubic foot cannot be fixed, but should be
determined in particular instance.
The main variables in the soil proper are:
1. Specific Gravity of the soil particles that may vary
from 2.0-3.3 but normally they are from 2.5-2.8.
2. Particle size distribution of the soil. A mass
composed of entirely spheres of one size in the
densest possible condition will contain 75% solid
and 25% voids. The smaller the sphere in the mass,
the higher the percentage of the solid, hence,
particle size distribution may greatly affect density
3. Grain Size of Soil Particles. Sharp angular particles will
resist shifting from loose to a compacted state.
Flaky particles in soil will decrease its density
because they are difficult to compact.
Laboratory Test for Soil Density
Test for soil density may be divided into two:
a. Laboratory test to set standard for density
b. Field test to measure the density of soil in-placed
on the roadway.
Laboratory tests may be subdivided into three,
according to the basis of compaction procedures.
1. Static Test
2. Dynamic or Impact Test
3. Tamping foot or kneading compaction test
3. Grain Size of Soil Particles. Sharp angular particles will
resist shifting from loose to a compacted state.
Flaky particles in soil will decrease its density
because they are difficult to compact.
Laboratory Test for Soil Density
Test for soil density may be divided into two:
a. Laboratory test to set standard for density
b. Field test to measure the density of soil in-placed
on the roadway.
Laboratory tests may be subdivided into three,
according to the basis of compaction procedures.
1. Static Test
2. Dynamic or Impact Test
3. Tamping foot or kneading compaction test
Static Density is determining the maximum
density of soil sample in the laboratory. A
sample of about 5000grams of soil containing
a specified percentage of water is placed in a
cylinder mold 6 inches diameter and 8 inches
high.
The sample is then compressed under a load
of 2000 pounds per square inch applied at
the speed of 0.05 inch per minute. When the
maximum load is reached, it is held for a
period for a period of 1 minute and then,
gradually released from the known dry
weight of the soil. The mold diameter and the
height dry density of the sample are
computed. Several samples are compressed
to delineate the peak of the moisture density.
Dynamic or Impact Test. Samples of soils
each containing a designated percentage
of water are compacted in layers into
molds of specified size. The sample is
compacted by applying a number of
blows from free falling hammer of
prescribed dimension and weight with
flat circular face. The peak of moisture
density value represents the standard
density. The AASHTO tests may be
applied on that portion of the soil which
will pass No. 4 sieve or all that passes
3/4” sieve.
Tamping Foot or Kneading Compact
Test. The material is fed into a
rotating mold and compacted by
several repetitive loads applied
through tamping shoe shaped like
a sector of the circle. About 25%
of the specimen is covered in
each application. Compaction is
through kneading action in
contrast with static pressure or
impact test.
Field Density Test of Soil in Place
Field density test is the means of comparing the density with
the laboratory results. The comparison is performed on
the basis of relative compaction.
Field Density and Moisture Content by Sampling
The manner of determining relative compaction by sampling
are as follows:
1. Obtain samples of the compacted materials to be
tested at full depth.
2. Find the wet and dry unit weight of the sample, then,
determine its moisture content.
3. Determine the volume of the sample in the fill by
finding the weight of materials required to fill the space.
4. From the dry unit weight of the sample and the volume
that it occupies in the fill, find the dry unit weight per
cubic foot.
5. Find the relative compaction of the soil in fill by dividing
its dry unit weight per cubic foot by the laboratory
standard density.
There are four factors that affect the accuracy of
measuring relative density, they are:
1. Change in the soil itself.
2. The sampling methods.
3. The accuracy of laboratory testing for standard
density.
4. The accuracy of testing field density.
The Strength Test
Soil tests to determine the strength of soil is classified
into:
1. Test for load carrying capacity, rate, and amount
of consolidation in soils that support the
foundation.
2. Test to measure the supporting power of
disturbed soils as compacted under standard
procedures.
California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
This combines a load deformation test
performed in the laboratory with an
empirical design chart to determine the
thickness of pavement base and other
layers. The test are briefly conducted as
follows:
1. The disturbed soil samples at different
moisture content are compacted in 3
layers by static loading or impact
hammer into a cylinder mold 6 inches
diameter by 8 inches high. The specimen
depth is about 5 inches. The 5.5 pounds
hammer AASHTO standard density is
used in the impact method.
2. The moisture density curve is plotted.
The sample with greatest dry
density is chosen.
3. The specimen in the mold is
immersed in water for four days to
allow saturation. Expansion of the
specimen is recorded.
4. A small piston of 3 inches diameter
is forced into the confined specimen.
Load deformation data is recorded.
The California Bearing Ratio is
computed as follows: