HIDROLOGI DAN DRAINASE

“nature is indifferent towards the dificulties it

couses to a mathematician” (J.Fourier)
 Evapotranspiration (ET) is the process that
returns water back to the atmosphere

 Evaporation from evaporative surface : open

water, soils (E)

 Transpiration from plants (T)

 ET = E + T
 Basic physical principles
◦ Conservation of mass
◦ Conservation of energy
◦ Ideal Gas Law related to water vapor
◦ Latent heat of phasa change
◦ Turbulent transfer near the ground – (diffusion of
momentum…) Conservation of Mass

 Diffusive process driven by a vapor pressure

gradient
 Vapor pressure : the partial pressure exerted
by water mollecules (N/m2 = Pa or mb, 1 mb
= 100 Pa)
 Saturation vapor pressure es(t) : the
maximum vapor pressure that is
thermodynamically stable

 17,27T 
es (T )  611exp   Pa
 237,3  T 
 Relative humidity : vapor pressure relative to
saturation vapor pressure (usually expressed
as %)
e
Rh 
es (T )

 Dew point Td : the temperature to which a

parcel of air has to be cooled at constant
(vapor) pressure to reach saturation
 4 conditions that are required for evaporation
to occur
◦ Energy available for phasa change
◦ Water available at the surface or in root zone
◦ Vapor pressure gradient, or dry air
◦ Wind – capacity of the atmosphere to transport
away moisture
◦ Conductance (depends on the 4 aboves and the
physiology of the evaporative body)
 Factors that influence evaporation include
anything that influence the above
Evaporation of water from the vascular system of plants. Process :
1. absorption into roots, 2. translocation to stamatal cavities, 3.
evaporation
 Transpiration is complex process to understand,
study and measure :
◦ Influenced by atmospheric conditions such ass humidity,
temperature, CO2 concentration, wind speed.
◦ Depends on the physiology of a plant species (tree,
grass, shrub) and its adaptations to water availability
◦ Extract water over the entire root zone which can extend
vertically and laterally in vicinity of plant
 Transpiration is limited by :
◦ Energy availability (solar radiation for photosynthesis)
◦ Water availability (soil moisture for plant uptake)
◦ Turbulent transport (wind speed near leaf surface)
 Transpiration is the by-product of plant
photosynthesis (carbon fixation) :
◦ Atmospheric CO2 fixed into organic carbon through
photosynthesis using solar energy at leaf surfaces
◦ CO2 enters leaf via stomata (pore spaces)
◦ Asa by-product of photosynthesis, water is
produced inside a leaf
◦ Water evaporation occurs in stomata and leaves the
leaf through open pores
◦ Upward water flux pulls water (with nutrients) up
from root zone
 Stomata are critical components of
transpiration and determine water loss :
 The physics of evaporation from stomata are
the same as for open water with difference in
conductance term
 Conductance is a two step process
◦ Stomata to leaf surface
◦ Leaf surface to atmosphere
 Resistance = 1/conductance
 Canopy conductance : Ccan  f s ( LAI )Cleaf

◦ Fs = shelter factor
◦ LAI = Leaf Area Index
 Important distinction between potential and actual
evapotranspiration :
◦ Potential Evaporation (Ep) and Potential Transpiration (Tp)
 Rate of evaporation that would occur from a uniformly wet,
large area of soil
 Rate of transpiration occuring from a large area completely
covered with vegetation with access to unlimited water
supply
◦ Actual Evaporation (Ea) and Actual Transpiration (Ta)
 Actual evaporation takes into account water supply
limitations at the soil surface
 Actual transpiration accounts for limited supply of water to
roots and represents field conditions
 PET can be considered a drying power
 No good direct measurement method
 Methods :
◦ Pan Observed changes in water “level”
◦ Water balance
Calculate from weather data
◦ Mass transfer approach
◦ Energy balances approach
◦ Combination – Penman Monteith
◦ Eddy correlation
Relate to an index
◦ Temperature index – Thornthwaite
◦ Radiation index – Priestley Taylor
  Pan estimates for potential E are based on the
adjustment of pan measurements
◦ Kp is a crop or pan coefficient,
Eto  k p E pan defined as the ratio of the actual
to the pan evaporation
◦ Values for kp vary with season
Where :
and location of interest
Et o: Actual E over open ◦ Kp for some areas in Idaho, US :
water in potential rate
Month Kp
Epan : direct observation April 0,75
of water loss from pan May 0,86
June 0,92
July 0,94
 Watershed water balance method applied for
large regions and long time periods
◦ Measurements over a watershed
can be used to estimate actual
evaporation (ETo) over large
areas :
ETo  P  Q  G  
G : changes in groundwater
 : changes in soil water
◦ For long-term estimates with no
changes in storage (G or ) :
ETo  P  Q
 H K H (Ts  Ta )
 
LE K E (es  ea )

ca P (Ts  Ta )

0,622v (es  ea )

 = psychrometric constant

 Bowen ratio is often used to eliminate the need to

calculate sensible heat
 Using standard values for P and v the value is 0,066
(kPa/K)
  
 ( Rn  G )  K time a c p (es  ea ) 
 ra 
ET    /
  rs  
    1  

  ra  
 ET : reference evapotranspiration
 Rn : net radiation
 G : soil heat flux
 a : mean air density at constant pressure
 cp : specific heat of the air
  : slope of the saturation vapour pressure
temperature relationship
  : psychrometric constant
 rs : (bulk) surface
 ra : aerodynamic resistance
 (es-ea) : vapour pressure deficit of the air
 Given the meteorological data as measured on 6
December 2006 in Cikatomas (Tasikmalaya)
located at 100m above sea level :
◦ Max air temperature (Tmax) = 33,83 °C
◦ Min air temperature (Tmin) = 25,50 °C
◦ Max relative humidity (Rhmax) = 84%
◦ Min relative humidity (Rhmin) = 58,50%
◦ Wind speed measured at 10 m height = 10 km/hour
◦ Actual hours of sunshine (n) = 9,25 hours
◦ P = 100,1 kPa
 Count Eto with determine another coefficient !
 http://earth.boisestate.edu/home/jmcnamar/
hydro09/Notes/Evapotranspiration.ppt
 FAO paper 56