22 3MB1lecturecourse 4

22.
3MB1 Electromagnetism
Dr Andy Harvey
e-mail a.r.harvey@hw.ac.uk
lecture notes are at:

http://www.cee.hw.ac.uk/~arharvey/22.3MB1electromagnetism.zip
Revision of Electrostatics (week 1)

Vector Calculus (week 2-4)
Maxwell’s equations in integral and differential form (week 5)
Electromagnetic wave behaviour from Maxwell’s equations (week 6-7.5)
–Heuristic description of the generation of EM waves
–Mathematical derivation of EM waves in free space
–Relationship between E and H
–EM waves in materials
–Boundary conditions for EM waves
Fourier description of EM waves (week 7.5-8)
Reflection and transmission of EM waves from materials (week 9-10)
http://www.cee.hw.ac.uk/~arharve 1
Maxwell’s equations
t
in differential form
.J   Equation of continuity

dt
E   Faraday' s law
B
dt
H  J  Ampere' s law
D
.B  0 Gauss' law for magnetostatics
.D   Gauss' law for electrostatics
D  E
• Varying E and H fields are
B  H
coupled
NB Equations brought from elsewhere, or to be carried on to next page, highlighted in this colour
NB Important results highlighted in this colour
Fields at large distances from charges and current sources
E H
H  J    E  
dt dt
• For a straight conductor the magnetic field is
given by Ampere’s law
• At large distances or high frequencies H(t,d)
H lags I(t,d=0) due to propagation time
I – Transmission of field is not instantaneous
– Actually H(t,d) is due to I(t-d/c,d=0)
• Modulation of I(t) produces a dH/dt term
• dH/dt produces E
• dE/dt term produces H
• etc.
• How do the mixed-up E and H fields spread
out from a modulated current ?
– eg current loop, antenna etc
A moving point charge:
• A static charge produces radial
field lines
• Constant velocity, acceleration and
finite propagation speed distorts
the field line
• Propagation of kinks in E field
lines which produces kinks of
2
E t and  2E t
• Changes in E couple into H & v.v
– Fields due to E t are short range
2
– Fields due to  E t propagate
2
• Accelerating charges produce

travelling waves consisting
coupled modulations of E and H
Depiction of fields propagating
from an accelerating point charge
E in plane of page
H in and out of page
• Fields propagate at c=1/3 x 108 m/sec

Examples of EM waves due to
accelerating charges
• Bremstrahlung - “breaking radiation”

• Synchrotron emission
• Magnetron
• Modulated current in antennas
– sinusoidal v.important
• Blackbody radiation
2.2 Electromagnetic waves in lossless media -
Maxwell’s equations
Maxwell Constitutive relations
D D  E   r  o E
H  J 
dt B  H   r  o H
B J  sE
E  
dt
SI Units
.D   • J Amp/ metre2
.B  0 • D Coulomb/metre2
• H Amps/metre
• B Tesla
Equation of continuity Weber/metre2
 Volt-Second/metre2
.J   • E Volt/metre
t •  Farad/metre
•  Henry/metre
• s Siemen/metre
2.6 Wave equations in free space
• In free space
– s=0 J=0
– Hence: D D
H  J  
dt dt
B
E  
dt
– Taking curl of both sides of latter equation:
B  
    E        B   o   H
t t t
  D 
  o  
t  t 
 2E
    E    o
t 2
Wave equations in free space cont.
 2E
    E    o
t 2
• It has been shown (last week) that for any vector A
    A  .A   2 A
2 2 2
where  
2
  is the Laplacian operator
x 2 y 2 z 2
Thus:  2E
.E   E    o
2
t 2
• There are no free charges in free space so .E==0
and we get 2
 E
 2 E   o
t 2
A three dimensional wave equation
• Both E and H obey second order partial differential wave
equations:
 2
E
 2 E   o 2
t
 2H
 2 H   o
t 2
• What does this mean

– dimensional analysis ?
Volts/metr e Volts/metr e
2
  o
metre seconds2
– o has units of velocity-2
– Why is this a wave with velocity 1/ o ?
The wave equation
2A v
 A   o
2
t 2
• Why is this a travelling wave ? ẑ
• A 1D travelling wave has a solution of the form:
A  Ao f ( z  vt) Constant for a
travelling wave
2A 2A
 A f 
  z  vt   A v 2
f z  vt
z t
2 o 2 o
Substitute back into the above EM 3D wave equation

Ao f z  vt  Ao v 2 of z  vt
This is a travelling wave if v  1  o

• In free space v  1  o o  2.9979 10 8 m/sec  c
2  2
E
E x  sin z  vt   2 E   o 2
 t
• Substitute this 1D expression into 3D ‘wave equation’ (Ey=Ez=0):
 
sin  z  vt    cos   z  vt     2
sin z  vt 
z 2
z
 
sin   z  vt    v cos   z  vt     v sin z  vt 
2 2
t 2
t
  2 sin x  vt    o 2 v 2 sin x  vt 
1
v
 o
• Sinusoidal variation in E or H is a solution ton the wave equation
Summary of wave equations in free space cont.
• Maxwells equations lead to the three-dimensional wave equation to

describe the propagation of E and H fields
• Plane sinusoidal waves are a solution to the 3D wave equation
• Wave equations are linear
– All temporal field variations can be decomposed into Fourier components

• wave equation describes the propagation of an arbitrary disturbance
– All waves can be written as a superposition of plane waves (again by Fourier

analysis)
• wave equation describes the propagation of arbitrary wave fronts in free space.
Summary of the generation of
travelling waves
• We see that travelling waves are set up when  2E t 2  0
– accelerating charges
– but there is also a field due to Coulomb’s law:
q
E
4 o r 2
– For a spherical travelling wave, the power carried by the travelling

wave obeys an inverse square law (conservation of energy)
• P a E2 a 1/r2
– to be discussed later in the course
• Ea1/r
– Coulomb field decays more rapidly than travelling field
– At large distances the field due to the travelling wave is much
larger than the ‘near-field’
Heuristic summary of the generation of travelling waves
E t due to charge
constant velocity (1/ r2)
E due to stationary
charge (1/r2)
 2 E t 2 kinks due to charge

acceleration (1/r)
 2 H t 2 due to E (1/r)

2.8 Uniform plane waves - transverse relation of E and H
• Consider a uniform plane wave, propagating in the z
direction. E is independent of x and y
E E
0 0
x y
In a source free region, .D= =0 (Gauss’ law) :
E x E y E z
.E    0
x y z
E is independent of x and y, so
E x E y E z
 0, 0  0  Ez  0 ( E z  constis not a wave)
x y z
• So for a plane wave, E has no component in the direction of
propagation. Similarly for H.
• Plane waves have only transverse E and H components.
Orthogonal relationship between E and H:
• For a plane z-directed wave there are no variations along x and y:
 A Ay 
H y H x   A  a x  z  

  H  a x ay  y z 
z z  A A 
ay x  z 
D  z x 
  Ay Ax 
t a z   

 x y 
 E x E y E z 
  ax
  ay  ay  D
 t t t  H  J 
dt
• Equating terms: • and likewise for   E   o H t :
H y E E y H x
  x  o
z t z t
H x E y E x H y
  o
z t z t
• Spatial rate of change of H is proportionate to the temporal rate of change
of the orthogonal component of E & v.v. at the same point in space
Orthogonal and phase relationship between E and H:
• Consider a linearly polarised wave that has a transverse
component in (say) the y direction only:
E y  Eo f z  vt  
H y

E x
E y H x z t
  vEo f  z  vt   H x E y
t z 
z t
 H x  vEo  f z  vt dz  const  vEo f  z  vt 
 vEy

Hx   Ey
o
• Similarly E y H x
 o
 z t
Hy  Ex E x H y
o  o
z t
• H and E are in phase and orthogonal
 
Hx   Ey Hy  Ex
o o
• The ratio of the magnetic to electric fields strengths is:
E x2  E y2 E o Note:
  
H x2  H y2 H 
E E 1
  c
which has units of impedance B o H  o o
Volts / metre

amps / metre
• and the impedance of free space is:
o 4 10 7
  120  377 
o 1
10 9
36
Orientation of E and H
• For any medium the intrinsic impedance is denoted by 
Ey Ex
 
Hx Hy
and taking the scalar product
E.H  E x H x  E y H y
 H y H x  H x H y  0
so E and H are mutually orthogonal

• Taking the cross product of E and H we get the direction
of wave propagation

E  H  a z Ex H y  E y H x  
A  B  a x Ay Bz  Az B y  

 a z H y2  H x2  a y  Az Bx  Ax Bz  

a z Ax B y  Ay Bx 
E  H  a zH 2
A ‘horizontally’ polarised wave
• Sinusoidal variation of E and H 
Hy  Ex
• E and H in phase and orthogonal o
Hy
Ex
E H
A block of space containing an EM plane wave
• Every point in 3D space is characterised by
– Ex, Ey, Ez
– Which determine
• Hx, Hy, Hz
• and vice versa
– 3 degrees of freedom

Ex 
Hy  Ex
o
E H 
Hx   Ey
Hy o
An example
application of
Maxwell’s
equations:
The Magnetron
The magnetron
• Locate features:
Lorentz force F=qvB
Poynting vector S
Displacement current, D
Current, J
Power flow of EM radiation
• Intuitively power flows in the direction of
propagation
– in the direction of EH

E  H  a z Ex H y  E y H x 
 a zH 2
E2
 az

• What are the units of EH?

– H2=.(Amps/metre)2 =Watts/metre2 (cf I2R)
– E2/=(Volts/metre)2 / =Watts/metre2 (cf I2R)
• Is this really power flow ?
Power flow of EM radiation cont.
• Energy stored in the EM field in the thin box is:
E 2
dU  dU E  dU H  u E  u H Adx
uE 
2
 E 2  o H 2  o H 2
dU     Adx uH 
 2 2  2
 
 E 2 Adx 
Hy  Ex
• Power transmitted through the box is dU/dt=dU/(dx/c).... o
 dx
Ex
E H
Hy
Area A
Power flow of EM radiation cont.
dU  E 2 Adx
dU E 2  E2
S  Adx   W/m2
Adt Adx c  o 
• This is the instantaneous power flow
– Half is contained in the electric component
– Half is contained in the magnetic component
• E varies sinusoidal, so the average value of S is obtained
as: 2
E  E sin z  vt 

o
Eo2 sin 2 z  vt 
S

S
Eo2

RMS 
Eo2 2

sin z  vt  
Eo2
2
• S is the Poynting vector and indicates the direction and magnitude of
power flow in the EM field.
Example problem
• The door of a microwave oven is left open
– estimate the peak E and H strengths in the aperture of the door.
– Which plane contains both E and H vectors ?
– What parameters and
equations are required?
• Power-750 W
• Area of aperture - 0.3 x 0.2 m
• impedance of free space - 377 
• Poynting vector:
E2
S  H 2 W/m2

Solution
E2
Power  SA  A  H 2 A Watts

Power 750
E   377  2,171 V/m
A 0.3.0.2
E 2170
H   5.75 A/m
 377
B   o H  4  10 7  5.75  7.2μTesla
• Suppose the microwave source is omnidirectional and displaced
horizontally at a displacement of 100 km. Neglecting the effect of
the ground:
• Is the E-field
a) vertical
b) horizontal
c) radially outwards
d) radially inwards
e) either a) or b)
• Does the Poynting vector point
a) radially outwards
b) radially inwards
c) at right angles to a vector from the observer to the source
• To calculate the strength of the E-field should one
a) Apply the inverse square law to the power generated
b) Apply a 1/r law to the E field generated
c) Employ Coulomb’s 1/r2 law
Field due to a 1 kW omnidirectional generator (cont.)
P 10 3
Power  S    5.97 nW/m2
4r 2  
4 10 5 2
Power Power 750

E      1.5 mV/m
 
377
A 4r 2 4 10 5
2
4.1 Polarisation
• In treating Maxwells equations we referred to

components of E and H along the x,y,z directions
– Ex, Ey, Ez and Hx, Hy, Hz
• For a plane (single frequency) EM wave
– Ez=Hz =0
– the wave can be fully described by either its
E components or its H components 
– It is more usual to describe a wave in terms of Hy  Ex
o
its E components

• It is more easily measured Hx   Ey
o
– A wave that has the E-vector in the x-direction
only is said to be polarised in the x direction
• similarly for the y direction
Polarisation cont..
• Normally the cardinal axes are Earth-referenced
– Refer to horizontally or vertically polarised
– The field oscillates in one plane only and is referred to as linear polarisation
• Generated by simple antennas, some lasers, reflections off dielectrics
– Polarised receivers must be correctly aligned to receive a specific polarisation
A horizontal polarised wave generated by a horizontal dipole and

incident upon horizontal and vertical dipoles
Horizontal and vertical linear polarisation
Linear polarisation
• If both Ex and Ey are present and in phase then components
add linearly to form a wave that is linearly polarised signal
at angle
1
Ey
  tan
Ex
Horizontal Vertical Co-phased vertical+horizontal

polarisation polarisation =slant Polarisation
Slant linear polarisation
Slant polarised waves generated by co-phased horizontal and vertical

dipoles and incident upon horizontal and vertical dipoles
Circular polarisation
LHC polarisation NB viewed as approaching wave
Eh  Eoh sin  z  vt 
 
Ev  Eov sin   z  vt  
 2
 Eov cos  z  vt 
RHC polarisation
Eh  Eoh sin  z  vt 
 
Ev  Eov sin   z  vt  
 2
  Eov cos  z  vt 
Circular polarisation
LHC
RHC
LHC & RHC polarised waves generated by quadrature -phased horizontal

and vertical dipoles and incident upon horizontal and vertical dipoles
Elliptical polarisation - an example
 
Ev  1.5 sin   z  vt  
 3
Eh  1.0 sin  z  vt 
Constitutive relations
• permittivity of free space 0=8.85 x 10-12 F/m D  E   r  o E
• permeability of free space o=4x10-7 H/m B  H   r  o H
• Normally r (dielectric constant) and r J  sE
– vary with material
– are frequency dependant
• For non-magnetic materials r ~1 and for Fe is ~200,000
• r is normally a few ~2.25 for glass at optical frequencies
– are normally simple scalars (i.e. for isotropic materials) so
that D and E are parallel and B and H are parallel
• For ferroelectrics and ferromagnetics r and r depend on the
relative orientation of the material and the applied field:
 Bx    xx  xy  xz  H x  At   j 0
     microwave    j 

 B y     yx  yy  yz  H y  frequencies: ij
 0
 B     0  o 
 z   zx  zy  zz  H z   0
Constitutive relations cont...
• What is the relationship between  and refractive index for non
magnetic materials ?
– v=c/n is the speed of light in a material of refractive index n
1 c
v 
 o o r n
n  r
– For glass and many plastics at optical frequencies
• n~1.5
• r~2.25
• Impedance is lower within a dielectric
o r

 o r
What happens at the boundary between materials of different
n,r,r ?
Why are boundary conditions important ?
• When a free-space electromagnetic wave is incident
upon a medium secondary waves are
– transmitted wave
– reflected wave
• The transmitted wave is due to the E and H fields at
the boundary as seen from the incident side
• The reflected wave is due to the E and H fields at the
boundary as seen from the transmitted side
• To calculate the transmitted and reflected fields we
need to know the fields at the boundary
– These are determined by the boundary conditions
Boundary Conditions cont.
1,1,s1
2,2,s2
• At a boundary between two media, r,rs are different on either

side.
• An abrupt change in these values changes the characteristic
impedance experienced by propagating waves
• Discontinuities results in partial reflection and transmission of
EM waves
• The characteristics of the reflected and transmitted waves can be
determined from a solution of Maxwells equations along the
boundary
2.3 Boundary conditions
• The tangential component of E is continuous E1t, H1t 1,1,s1
at a surface of discontinuity
– E1t,= E2t E2t, H2t 2,2,s2
• Except for a perfect conductor, the
tangential component of H is continuous at a
surface of discontinuity
– H1t,= H2t
• The normal component of D is continuous at
the surface of a discontinuity if there is no
surface charge density. If there is surface D1n, B1n 1,1,s1
charge density D is discontinuous by an
amount equal to the surface charge density. D2n, B2n 2,2,s2
– D1n,= D2n+s
• The normal component of B is continuous at
the surface of discontinuity
– B1n,= B2n
Proof of boundary conditions - continuity of Et
x
1,1,s1
y
E y1 E x1 E y3
Ey2 Ey4 2,2,s2
Ex2
• Integral form of Faraday’s law:

B
0
 E.ds   A t
.dA
0
0 0
y y y y B
E y2  E y1  E x1x  E y 3  E y4  E x 2 x   z xy
2 2 2 2 t
0
As y  0, Bz t xy  0 That is, the tangential
component of E is
E x1x  E x 2 x  0
 E x1  E x 2 continuous
Proof of boundary conditions - continuity of Ht
x
1,1,s1
y
H y1 H x1 H y3
H y2 H y4 2,2,s2
H x2
• Ampere’s law
 D 
0 0  H.ds   
A  t
 J .dA
 0 0
y y y y  Dz 
H y2  H y1  H x1x  H y 3  H y4  H x 2 x    J z xy
2 2 2 2  t 
0
As y  0, Dz t  J z xy  0 That is, the tangential
component of H is
H x1x  H x 2 x  0
 H x1  H x 2 continuous
Proof of boundary conditions - Dn
Dn1
y
x
z 1,1,s1
2,2,s2
Dn 2
• The integral form of Gauss’ law for electrostatics is:
 D.dA  V dV
applied to the box gives
Dn1xy  Dn2 xy  edge   s xy
As dz  0, edge  0 hence
Dn1  Dn2   s The change in the normal component of D at a
boundary is equal to the surface charge density
Proof of boundary conditions - Dn cont.
Dn1  Dn2   s
• For an insulator with no static electric charge s=0
Dn1  Dn 2
• For a conductor all charge flows to the surface and for an

infinite, plane surface is uniformly distributed with area
charge density s
In a good conductor, s is large, D=E0 hence if
medium 2 is a good conductor
Dn1   s
Proof of boundary conditions - Bn
• Proof follows same argument as for Dn on page 47,
• The integral form of Gauss’ law for magnetostatics is
 B.dA  0
– there are no isolated magnetic poles
Bn1xy  Bn 2 xy  edge  0

 Bn1  Bn 2
The normal component of B at a boundary is

always continuous at a boundary
2.6 Conditions at a perfect conductor
• In a perfect conductor s is infinite
• Practical conductors (copper, aluminium silver) have
very large s and field solutions assuming infinite s can
be accurate enough for many applications
– Finite values of conductivity are important in calculating
Ohmic loss
• For a conducting medium
– J=sE
• infinite s infinite J
• More practically, s is very large, E is very small (0) and J is finite
2.6 Conditions at a perfect conductor
• It will be shown that at high frequencies J is confined to a surface
layer with a depth known as the skin depth
• With increasing frequency and conductivity the skin depth, dx
becomes thinner
Current sheet
dx
dx
Lower frequencies, Higher frequencies,
smaller s larger s
• It becomes more appropriate to consider the current density in

terms of current per unit with:
lim Jdx  J s A/m
dx  0
Conditions at a perfect conductor cont. (page 47 revisited)
x
1,1,s1
y
H y1 H x1 H y3
H y2 H y4 2,2,s2
H x2
• Ampere’s law:  D 
 H.ds   
A  t
 J .dA
 0 Jszx
0 0
y y y y  D 
H y2  H y1  H x1x  H y 3  H y4  H x 2 x   z  J z xy
2 2 2 2  t 
0
As y  0, Dz t xy  0, J z xy  xJ sz
That is, the tangential component of H is
H x1  H x 2  J sz discontinuous by an amount equal to the
surface current density
Conditions at a perfect conductor cont. (page 47 revisited)
cont.
• From Maxwell’s equations:
– If in a conductor E=0 then dE/dT=0
– Since H
  E  
dt
Hx2=0 (it has no time-varying component and also
cannot be established from zero)
H x1  J sz
The current per unit width, Js, along the surface of a
perfect conductor is equal to the magnetic field just
outside the surface:
• H and J and the surface normal, n, are mutually
perpendicular: J  n  H
s
Summary of Boundary conditions
At a boundary between non-conducting media
E t1  E t 2 n  E1  E 2   0
H t1  H t 2 n  H1  H 2   0
Dn1  Dn 2  n.D1  D 2   0
Bn1  Bn 2 n.B1  B 2   0
At a metallic boundary (large s)

n  E1  E 2   0
n  H1  H 2   0
n.D1  D 2    s
n.B1  B 2   0
At a perfectly conducting boundary
n  E1  0
n  H1  J s
n.D1   s
n.B1  0
2.6.1 The wave equation for a conducting medium
• Revisit page 8 derivation of the wave equation with J0
D B
H  J  E  
dt dt
As on page 8:
B  
    E        B   o   H
t t t
 D 
    E   o  J  
t  t 
J  sE
J  2D D  E
  o  o 2
t t
E  2E
   os   o 2
t t
2.6.1 The wave equation for a conducting medium
cont.
E  2E
    E    os   o 2
t t
E  2E
.E   E    os
2
  o 2
t t
In the absence of sources .E    0 hence:
E  2
E
 2 E   os   o 2
t t
• This is the wave equation for a decaying wave
– to be continued...
Reflection and refraction of plane waves
• At a discontinuity the change in ,  and s results
in partial reflection and transmission of a wave
• For example, consider normal incidence:
Incidentwave  Ei e j t  z 
Reflectedwave  Er e j t  z 
• Where Er is a complex number determined by the

boundary conditions
Reflection at a perfect conductor
• Tangential E is continuous across the
boundary
– see page 45
• For a perfect conductor E just inside the
surface is zero
– E just outside the conductor must be zero
Ei  E r  0
 Ei   E r
• Amplitude of reflected wave is equal to
amplitude of incident wave, but reversed in
phase
Standing waves
• Resultant wave at a distance -z from the
interface is the sum of the incident and
reflected waves
ET z , t   incident wave  reflected wave
 Ei e j t  z   E r e j t  z 

 Ei e  jz  e jz e jt sin  
e j  e j
 2 jE i sin z e jt
2j
and if Ei is chosen to be real

ET z , t   Re  2 jE i sin z cost  j sin t 
 2 Ei sin z sin t
Standing waves cont...
ET z, t   2Ei sin z sin t
• Incident and reflected wave combine to produce

a standing wave whose amplitude varies as a
function (sin z) of displacement from the
interface
• Maximum amplitude is twice that of incident
fields
Reflection from a perfect conductor
• Direction of propagation is given by EH
If the incident wave is polarised along the y axis:
Ei  a y E yi
 H i  a x H xi From page 18
then  
E  H   a y  a x E yi H xi
 a z E yi H xi
That is, a z-directed wave.
For the reflected wave Ε  H  a z E yi H xi and Er  a y E yi
So H r  a x H xi  H i and the magnetic field is
reflected without change in phase
j  j
e e
• Given that cos 
2
derive (using a similar method that used
for ET(z,t) on p59) the form for HT(z,t)
H T z, t   H i e j t  z   H r e j t  z 

 H i e jz  e  jz e jt 
 2 H i cos z e jt
As for Ei, Hi is real (they are in phase), therefore
H T z, t   Re2H i cos z cost  j sin t   2H i cos z cost
HT z, t   2H i cos z cost
• Resultant magnetic field strength also has a
standing-wave distribution
• In contrast to E, H has a maximum at the surface
and zeros at (2n+1)/4 from the surface:
resultant wave resultant wave
E [V/m] H [A/m]
z [m] z [m]
free space silver free space silver

z = 0 z = 0
ET z, t   2Ei sin z sin t
HT z, t   2H i cos z cost
• ET and HT are /2 out of phase( sin t  cost   / 2)

• No net power flow as expected
– power flow in +z direction is equal to power flow in - z direction
Reflection by a perfect dielectric
• Reflection by a perfect dielectric (J=sE=0)
– no loss
• Wave is incident normally
– E and H parallel to surface
• There are incident, reflected (in medium 1)and
transmitted waves (in medium 2):
Reflection from a lossless dielectric
Reflection by a lossless dielectric
Ei  1 H i
j 
E r  1 H r  
s  j o r 
Et   2 H t
• Continuity of E and H at boundary requires:
Ei  E r  Et
Hi  Hr  Ht
Which can be combined to give
H i  H r  Ei  Er   H t  Ei  Er 
1 1 1
Et 
1 2 2
1
Ei  E r   1
Ei  E r  Er  2  1
1 2 E  
 Ei  2  1
  2 Ei  Er   1 Ei  Er 
 Ei  2  1   Er  2  1 
The reflection coefficient
Ei  E r  Et
Hi  Hr  Ht
• Similarly
Et Er  Ei Er  2  1  2  1 2 2
E    1   
Ei Ei Ei  2  1  2  1  2  1
2 2
E 
 2  1
The transmission coefficient
• Furthermore:
Hr E
  r  H
Hi Ei
H t 1 Et 1 2 2 21
   H
H i  2 Ei  2  2  1  2  1
And because =o for all low-loss dielectrics

Er    2 n1  n2
E   1   H
Ei 1   2 n1  n2
Er 2 1 2n1
E   
Ei 1   2 n1  n2
2 2 2n2
H  
1   2 n1  n2
The End

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22.

lecture notes are at:

Revision of Electrostatics (week 1)

NB Important results highlighted in this colour

• Accelerating charges produce

H in and out of page

• Fields propagate at c=1/3 x 108 m/sec

• Bremstrahlung - “breaking radiation”

• What does this mean

Substitute back into the above EM 3D wave equation

This is a travelling wave if v  1  o

• Sinusoidal variation in E or H is a solution ton the wave equation

• Maxwells equations lead to the three-dimensional wave equation to

– All temporal field variations can be decomposed into Fourier components

– All waves can be written as a superposition of plane waves (again by Fourier

– For a spherical travelling wave, the power carried by the travelling

 2 E t 2 kinks due to charge

 2 H t 2 due to E (1/r)

• and the impedance of free space is:

so E and H are mutually orthogonal

Lorentz force F=qvB

• What are the units of EH?

Power Power 750

• In treating Maxwells equations we referred to

A horizontal polarised wave generated by a horizontal dipole and

Horizontal Vertical Co-phased vertical+horizontal

Slant polarised waves generated by co-phased horizontal and vertical

LHC & RHC polarised waves generated by quadrature -phased horizontal

• At a boundary between two media, r,rs are different on either

• Integral form of Faraday’s law:

• For a conductor all charge flows to the surface and for an

Bn1xy  Bn 2 xy  edge  0

The normal component of B at a boundary is

• It becomes more appropriate to consider the current density in

At a metallic boundary (large s)

• Where Er is a complex number determined by the

and if Ei is chosen to be real

• Incident and reflected wave combine to produce

free space silver free space silver

• ET and HT are /2 out of phase( sin t  cost   / 2)

And because =o for all low-loss dielectrics

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