تسير كهربائي

Electric Drives
Professor Mohammed Zeki Khedher

Lecture One
Introduction
In some countries nearly 65% of the total

electric energy produced is consumed by
electric motors.
Some Applications of Electric
Drives
• Electric Propulsion
• Pumps, fans, compressors
• Plant automation
• Flexible manufacturing systems
• Spindles and servos
• Appliances and power tools
• Cement kilns
• Paper and pulp mills; textile mills
• Automotive applications
• Conveyors, elevators, escalators, lifts
1. ENERGY CONVERSION IN ELECTRIC
DRIVES
1.1. ELECTRIC DRIVES - A DEFINITION
About 50% of electrical energy produced is used in electric drives today.
Electric drives may run at constant speed (figure 1.1) or at variable speed
(figure 1.2).
Figure 1.1. Constant speed

electric drive
Figure 1.2. Variable speed
electric drive
1.2. APPLICATION RANGE OF ELECTRIC
DRIVES
A summary of main industrial applications and power range of electric drives is
shown on figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3. Electric drives - variable speed applications

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1
Overview of AC and DC drives

Energy/Cost Savings
• System efficiency can be increased from

15% to 27% by introducing variable-
speed drive operation in place of
constant-speed operation.
• For a large pump variable-speed drive,
payback period ~ 3-5 years whereas
operating life is ~ 20 years.
Electric Machines
“An engineer designing a high-performance

drive system must have intimate knowledge
about machine performance and Power
Electronics”
Electric Machines (cont’d)
• DC Machines - shunt, series, compound,
separately excited dc motors and
switched reluctance machines
• AC Machines - Induction, wound rotor
synchronous, permanent magnet
synchronous, synchronous reluctance,
and switched reluctance machines.
• Special Machines - switched reluctance
machines
Electric Machines (cont’d)
All of the above machines are

commercially available in fractional kW
to MW ranges except permanent-magnet,
synchronous, synchronous reluctance,
and switched reluctance which are
available up to 150 kW level.
Selection Criteria for Electric
Machines
• Cost
• Thermal Capacity
• Efficiency
• Torque-speed profile
• Acceleration
• Power density, volume of motor
• Ripple, cogging torques
• Peak torque capability
Electrical Drives
• About 50% of electrical energy used for drives
• Can be either used for fixed speed or variable speed

• 75% - constant speed, 25% variable speed (expanding)
Example on VSD application
Constant speed Variable Speed Drives
valve
Supply
motor pump
Power Power out

In
Power loss
Mainly in valve
valve
Supply Supply
motor pump motor
PEC pump
Power Power out

In Power Power out
In
Power loss
Power loss
Mainly in valve
valve
Supply Supply
motor pump motor
PEC pump
Power Power out

In Power Power out
In
Power loss
Power loss
Mainly in valve
Conventional electric drives (variable speed)
• Bulky
• Inefficient
• inflexible
Modern electric drives (With power electronic converters)
• Small
• Efficient
• Flexible
Modern electric drives
Machine design
Utility interface
Speed sensorless
Renewable energy
Machine Theory
Non-linear control
Real-time control
DSP application
PFC
Speed sensorless
Power electronic converters
• Inter-disciplinary
• Several research area
• Expanding
Controllers
Controllers embody the control laws

governing the load and motor
characteristics and their interaction.
Torque/speed/
position commands
Vc, fc, start,
Torque/speed/ shut-out,
position feedback Controller signals, etc.
Thermal and
other feedback
20
21
Components in electric drives
e.g. Single drive - sensorless vector control from Hitachi

e.g. Multidrives system from ABB

Motors
• DC motors - permanent magnet – wound field
• AC motors – induction, synchronous , brushless DC
• Applications, cost, environment
Power sources
• DC – batteries, fuel cell, photovoltaic - unregulated
• AC – Single- three- phase utility, wind generator - unregulated
Power processor
• To provide a regulated power supply
• Combination of power electronic converters
• More efficient
• Flexible
• Compact
• AC-DC DC-DC DC-AC AC-AC
Control unit
• Complexity depends on performance requirement
• analog- noisy, inflexible, ideally has infinite bandwidth.
• digital – immune to noise, configurable, bandwidth is smaller than
the analog controller’s
• DSP/microprocessor – flexible, lower bandwidth - DSPs perform
faster operation than microprocessors (multiplication in single
cycle), can perform complex estimations
25
DC Motors
• Advantage: simple torque and speed control without

sophisticated electronics
• Limitations:
• Regular Maintenance • Expensive motor
• Heavy motor • Sparking
26
DC DRIVES Vs AC DRIVES
DC drives:
Advantage in control unit
Disadvantage in motor
AC Drives:
Advantage in motor
Disadvantage in control unit
27
1.3. ENERGY SAVINGS PAYS OFF RAPIDLY
Consider a real case when a motor pump system of 15kW works 300 days a year,
24 hours a day and pumps 1200m3 of water per day. By on/off and throttling
control, only, the system uses 0.36kWh/m3 of pumped water to keep the pressure
rather constant for variable flow rate.
Adding a P.E.C., in the same conditions, the energy consumption is 0.28kWh/m3
of pumped water, with a refined pressure control.
Let us consider that the cost of electrical energy is 40fils/kWh.
The energy savings per year S is:
S = 1200 * 300 * (0.36 -0.28) * 0.04 /year = 1152 JD/year
Now the costs of a 15kW PWM - P.E.C. for an induction motor is less than
4000JD. Thus, to a first approximation, the loss savings only pay off the extra
investment in less than 4 years.
28
Costs
• Power Electronics Controller costs
approximately 2 to 5 times AC motor
• Cost decreases with bigger size
29
1.4. GLOBAL ENERGY SAVINGS THROUGH
P.E.C. DRIVES
So far the energy savings produced by the P.E.C. in variable speed drives
have been calculated for the drive only - P.E.C. and motor.
Figure 1.5. Primary energy consumption for throttle / motor / pump system
30
Figure 1.6. Primary energy consumption for P.E.C. / motor / pump systems
31
Power consumption with flow
32
Load
The motor drives a load that has a characteristic

torque vs. speed requirement.
In general, load torque is a function of speed

and can be written as:
Tl  mx
x=1 for frictional systems (e.g. feed drives)
x=2 for fans and pumps
General Torque Equation
Translational (linear) motion:
dv F : Force (Nm)
F M M : Mass (Kg )
v : velocity (m/s)
dt
Rotational motion:
d
T : Torque (Nm)
J : Moment of Inertia (Kgm2 )
TJ  : angular velocity ( rad/s )
dt
34
Torque Equation: Motor drives
d d
Te  TL  J or Te  TL  J
dt dt
Te : motor torque (Nm) TL : Load torque (Nm)
Te  TL  0 Acceleration
Te  TL  0 Deceleration
Te  TL  0 Constant speed
35
…continue
Drive accelerates or decelerates depending

on whether Te is greater or less than TL
During acceleration, motor must supply not only

the load torque but also dynamic torque, ( Jd/dt ).
During deceleration, the dynamic torque, ( Jd/dt ), has
a negative sign. Therefore, it assists the motor
torque, Te.
36
Elementary principles of mechanics

v
x Newton’s law
Fm dMv 
M Fm  Ff 
Ff dt
Linear motion, constant M
dv  d2 x
Fm  Ff  M  M 2  Ma
dt dt
• First order differential equation for speed

• Second order differential equation for displacement
 Rotational motion
- Normally is the case for electrical drives

Tl
dJm 
Te  Tl 
Te , m dt
J
With constant J,
dm  d 2
Te  Tl  J J 2
dt dt
• First order differential equation for angular frequency (or velocity)

• Second order differential equation for angle (or position)

For constant J, dm
Te  Tl  J
dt
dm 
J Torque dynamic – present during speed transient
dt
dm  Angular acceleration (speed)

dt
The larger the net torque, the faster the acceleration is.
200
100
speed (rad/s)
-100
-200
0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25
20
15
torque (Nm)
10
0
0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25
Combination of rotational and translational motions
Fl Fe
Te, 

r M r
Tl
v
dv 
Fe  Fl  M Te = r(Fe), Tl = r(Fl), v =r
dt
d
Te  Tl  r 2M
dt
r2M - Equivalent moment inertia of the

linearly moving mass
Elementary principles of mechanics – effect of gearing
Motors designed for high speed are smaller in size and volume
Low speed applications use gear to utilize high speed motors
m m1
Motor Load 1, n1
Te Tl1
J2
m2
n2 Load 2,
J1 Tl2
Elementary principles of mechanics – effect of gearing
m m1
Motor Load 1, n1
Te Tl1
J2
m2
n2 Load 2,
J1
Tl2
m
J equ  J1  a 22 J 2
Motor Equivalent
Te Load , Tlequ
Tlequ = Tl1 + a2Tl2
Jequ
a2 = n1/n2
1.6. MOTION / TIME PROFILE MATCH
Figure 1.8. Motion / time profile

a.) speed b.) position c.) required load torque
43
Example 1.2. The direct drive torque / time curve
A direct drive has to provide a speed / time curve such as in figure 1.9. against a
constant load torque of TL = 10Nm, for a motor load inertia J = 0.02 kgm2.
Figure 1.9. Required speed / time profile

Neglecting the mechanical losses let us calculate the motor torque (Te) / time
requirements.
The motion equation for a direct drive is:

Te  t   J   r  t   TL  t 
44
For the linear speed / time (acceleration - deceleration) zones the speed
derivative is:
  r max 376.8
r      1884 rad / s2
ta 0.2

For the constant speed (cruising) zone .r  0.0
Consequently the torque requirements from the motor for the three zones are:
1884  0.02  10  37.68  10  47.68Nm; for 0  t  0.2s


Te  0  10  10Nm; for 0.2  t  0.8s
 1884  0.02  10  37.68  10  27.68Nm; for 0.8  t  1s

45
The motor torque / time requirements are shown on figure 1.10.
Figure 1.10. Motor torque / time requirements
46
Example 1.3. gear - box drive torque / time curve
Let us consider an electric drive for an elevator with the data shown in
figure 1.11.
Figure 1.11. Elevator electric drive with multiple mechanical transmissions and
counterweight
47
The motor rated speed nn = 1550rpm. The efficiency of gearing system is h =
0.8.
Let us calculate the total inertia (reduced to motor shaft), torque and power
without and with counterweight.
First the motor angular speed m is:
1550
m  2    n n  2     162 .22 rad/s (1.12)
60
The gear ratios may be defined as speed ratios - t /m for J4+J5 and d /m for
J6 (figure 1.11).
Consequently the inertia of all rotating parts Jr, reduced to the motor shaft,
(figure 1.11), is:
t d
2 2
J r  J1  J 2  J 3  J 4  J 5   2  J 6  2 
m m (1.13)
2 2
 2 .5   7 .5 
 15  8  2  0.5  200      8     25.062 kgm
2
 162.22   162.22 
48
For the cabin and the counterweight, the inertia, reduced to motor shaft (Je) is:
u2 12
J e  m c  m cw   2  1200  800    0 . 07238 kgm 2
(1.14)
m 166 .22 2
Thus the total inertia Jt is:
J t  J r  J e  25 .062  0.07238  25 .135 kgm 2 (1.15)
In absence of counterweight the la of energy conservation leads to:
Tem  m  h  m c  g  u (1.16)
Consequently the motor torque, Tem, yields:
1200  9.81 1
Tem   90.71 Nm (1.17)
162.22  0.8
49
The motor electromagnetic power Pem is:
Pem  Tem  m  90 .71 162 .22  14715 W (1.18)
On the other hand in presence of counterweight (1.16) becomes:
Tem ' m  h  m c  m cw   g  u (1.19)
Tem '
1200  800   9.81 1
 30 .71 Nm (1.20)
162 .22  0.8
So the motor electromagnetic P’em is:
Pem '  Tem 'm  30 .71 162 .22  4905 W (1.21)
50
Motor steady state torque-speed characteristic
SPEED
Synchronous mch
Induction mch
Separately / shunt DC mch
Series DC
TORQUE
By using power electronic converters, the motor characteristic

can be change at will
Load steady state torque-speed characteristic

Frictional torque (passive load) • Exist in all motor-load drive
SPEED
T~ C system simultaneously
T~ 2
• In most cases, only one or two
T~  are dominating
• Exists when there is motion
TORQUE
Coulomb friction
Viscous friction
Friction due to turbulent flow


Constant torque, e.g. gravitational torque (active load)
SPEED Gravitational torque

Vehicle drive
Te
TORQUE
TL
gM

FL
TL = rFL = r g M sin 

Hoist drive
Speed
Torque
Gravitational torque
Load and motor steady state torque
At constant speed, Te= Tl

Steady state speed is at point of intersection between Te and Tl of the
steady state torque characteristics
Torque Te Tl
Steady state
speed
r3 r1r r2 Speed

Torque and speed profile
speed Speed profile

(rad/s)
100
10 25 45 60 t (ms)
The system is described by: Te – Tload = J(d/dt) + B
J = 0.01 kg-m2, B = 0.01 Nm/rads-1 and Tload = 5 Nm.
What is the torque profile (torque needed to be produced) ?

speed
(rad/s)
d
100
Te  J  B  Tl
dt
10 25 45 60 t (ms)
0 < t <10 ms Te = 0.01(0) + 0.01(0) + 5 Nm = 5 Nm
10ms < t <25 ms Te = 0.01(100/0.015) +0.01(-66.67 + 6666.67t) + 5

= (71 + 66.67t) Nm
25ms < t< 45ms Te = 0.01(0) + 0.01(100) + 5 = 6 Nm
45ms < t < 60ms Te = 0.01(-100/0.015) + 0.01(400 -6666.67t) + 5

= -57.67 – 66.67t

speed
(rad/s)
100
Speed profile
10 25 45 60 t (ms)
Torque
(Nm)
72.67
torque profile
71.67
6
5
10 25 45 60 t (ms)
-60.67
-61.67

Torque
(Nm)
70 J = 0.001 kg-m2, B = 0.1 Nm/rads-1

and Tload = 5 Nm.
10 25 45 60 t (ms)
-65
For the same system and with the motor torque profile
given above, what would be the speed profile?
Torque Equation: Graphical
Te
Speed
Forward Forward Reverse Reverse Reverse Forward

running braking acc. running braking acc.
60
Load Torque
Load torque, TL, is complex, depending on applications.

In general:
TORQUE
TL = k
TL = k
TL = k2
SPEED
61
Thermal considerations
Unavoidable power losses causes temperature increase

Insulation used in the windings are classified based on the
temperature it can withstand.
Motors must be operated within the allowable maximum temperature
Sources of power losses (hence temperature increase):

- Conductor heat losses (i2R)
- Core losses – hysteresis and eddy current
- Friction losses – bearings, brush windage
Steady-state stability
63
1.5.1. Typical load torque / speed
curves
Typical load torque / speed curves are

shown on figure 1.7. They give a
strong indication of the variety of
torque / speed characteristics. Along
such curves the mechanical power
required from the motor varies with
speed.
Figure 1.7. Typical load speed /

torque, speed / power curves
64
1.7. LOAD DYNAMICS AND STABILITY
d r
Jt   Te  Tfriction  Tload (1.22)
dt
Tfriction  TS  TC  TV  TW (1.23)
where TS is the static friction torque (at zero speed); TC is Coulomb friction
torque (constant with speed); TV is viscous friction torque (proportional to
speed) and TW is windage friction (including the ventilator braking torque,
proportional to speed squared):
TV  B' r (1.24)
TW  C   r
2
(1.25)
65
Figure 1.12. Components of friction torque, Tfriction
Figure 1.13. Mechanical characteristics:

a.) d.c. brush motor with separate excitation b.) induction motor
c.) synchronous motor
66
Various Motor Characteristics
I (Synchronous)
Speed
IV (Induction)
II (dc Shunt/Separately excited)
III (dc series excited)
Torque
Tmax
67
Example 1.4. D.C. brush motor drive stability.
A permanent magnet d.c. brush motor with the torque speed curve: drives a
d.c. generator which supplies a resistive load such that the generator torque /
speed equation is r = 2TL. We calculate the speed and torque for the steady
state point and find out if that point is stable.
Solution:
Let us first draw the motor and load (generator) torque speed curves on
figure 1.14.
Figure 1.14. D.C. brush motor load match

68
The steady state point, A, corresponds to constant speed and B = 0
in (1.27). Simply the motor torque counteracts the generator braking
torque:
TL  Te (1.37)
Using the two torque speed curves we find:

 rA  200  0.1  rA (1.38)
2
and thus:
200
 rA   190.476 rad/s (1.39)
1  0.1 / 2
and  rA 190 .476
TeA  TLA    95.238 Nm (1.40)
2 2
The static stability is met if:
 Te   TL 
     (1.41)
  r  A   r A
In our case from the two torque / speed curves:
1
 10  (1.42)
2
and thus, as expected, point A represents a situation of static equilibrium.
69
Electrical machines can be overloaded as long their temperature

does not exceed the temperature limit
Accurate prediction of temperature distribution in machines is

complex – hetrogeneous materials, complex geometrical shapes
Simplified assuming machine as homogeneous body
Ambient temperature, To
p1 p2
Thermal capacity, C (Ws/oC)
Surface A, (m2) Emitted heat power
Input heat power Surface temperature, T (oC)
(losses) (convection)
Power balance:
dT
C  p1  p 2
dt
Heat transfer by convection:
p 2  A(T  To ) , where  is the coefficient of heat transfer
Which gives:
dT A p
 T  1
dt C C
With T(0) = 0 and p1 = ph = constant ,
T 
ph
A

1  e t /   , where  
C
A
ph
T A T 
ph
A

1  e t /  
Heating transient
t

T
T  T(0)  e  t / 
 T ( 0)
Cooling transient
 t
The duration of overloading depends on the modes of operation:
Continuous duty
Load torque is constant over extended
Continuous duty period multiple
Short time intermittent duty
Steady state temperature reached
Periodic intermittent duty
Nominal output power chosen equals or exceeds continuous load
p1n
Losses due to continuous load
T A
p1n
 t
Short time intermittent duty

Operation considerably less than time constant, 
Motor allowed to cool before next cycle
Motor can be overloaded until maximum temperature reached
Short time intermittent duty p1s
p1
p1n
T p 1s
A
p1n
A
Tmax
 t
t1
p1s p p1 
Short time intermittent duty p 1n p 1s1t11 e/ e t /  
 t1 / 
1
T p1n A1  eA1n 1s

t1
T 
p1s
A

1  e t /  
p1n
A
Tmax
 t
t1
Load cycles are repeated periodically
Motors are not allowed to completely cooled
Fluctuations in temperature until steady state temperature is reached

p1
heating coolling
heating coolling
heating coolling
t
Example of a simple case – p1 rectangular periodic pattern
pn = 100kW, nominal power

M = 800kg
h= 0.92, nominal efficiency
T= 50oC, steady state temperature rise due to pn
1  p1 9000
p1  pn   1  9kW Also, A    180 W / o C
h  T 50
If we assume motor is solid iron of specific heat cFE=0.48 kWs/kgoC,

thermal capacity C is given by
C = cFE M = 0.48 (800) = 384 kWs/oC
Finally , thermal time constant = 384000/180 = 35 minutes

Example of a simple case – p1 rectangular periodic pattern
For a duty cycle of 30% (period of 20 mins), heat losses of twice the nominal,
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
4
x 10
Torque-speed quadrant of operation
1
T -ve
2
T +ve
 +ve  +ve
Pm -ve Pm +ve
3 4
T -ve T +ve
 -ve  -ve
Pm +ve Pm -ve
4-quadrant operation
 Te
• Direction of positive (forward)
speed is arbitrary chosen
m m
Te • Direction of positive torque will
produce positive (forward) speed
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
Forward braking Forward motoring
T
Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
Reverse motoring Reverse braking Te
Te
m m
Ratings of converters and motors
Torque
Transient Power limit for

torque limit transient torque
Continuous
torque limit Power limit for
continuous torque
Maximum
speed limit
Speed
1.8. MULTIQUADRANT OPERATION
These possibilities are summarised in Table 1.1 and in figure 1.16.
Table 1.1.
Mode of Forward Forward Reverse Reverse

operation motoring regenerati motoring regenerati
ve braking ve braking
Speed,  r + + - -
Torque, Te + - - +
Electric + - + -
power flow
4Q OPERATION
F: FORWARD R: REVERSE M : MOTORING B: BRAKING
SPEED
Te  Te 
FB II I FM
TORQUE
III IV RB
Te  Te 
RM
4Q OPERATION: LIFT SYSTEM
Positive speed
Motor Negative torque
Counterweight Cage
Convention:
Upward motion of the cage: Positive speed
Weight of the empty cage < Counterweight
Weight of the full-loaded cage > Counterweight
Principle:
What causes the motion?
Motor : motoring P =T = +ve
Load (counterweight) : braking P =T = -ve

Speed
You are at 10th floor, calling You are at 10th floor, calling
empty cage from gnd floor fully-loaded cage from gnd floor
FB FM
Torque
RM RB
You are at gnd floor, calling You are at gnd floor, calling
empty cage from 10th floor Fully-loaded cage from 10th floor
DC MOTOR DRIVES
Principle of operation
Torque-speed characteristic
Methods of speed control
Armature voltage control
Variable voltage source
Phase-controlled Rectifier
Switch-mode converter (Chopper)
1Q-Converter
2Q-Converter
4Q-Converter
Figure 1.16. Electric drives with four quadrant operation

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Drepturi de autor:

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تسير كهربائي

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Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Electric Drives

Professor Mohammed Zeki Khedher

In some countries nearly 65% of the total

Figure 1.1. Constant speed

Figure 1.3. Electric drives - variable speed applications

Overview of AC and DC drives

• System efficiency can be increased from

“An engineer designing a high-performance

All of the above machines are

• About 50% of electrical energy used for drives

• Can be either used for fixed speed or variable speed

Example on VSD application

Constant speed Variable Speed Drives

Power Power out

Example on VSD application

Constant speed Variable Speed Drives

Power Power out

Example on VSD application

Constant speed Variable Speed Drives

Power Power out

Conventional electric drives (variable speed)

Modern electric drives (With power electronic converters)

Modern electric drives

Controllers embody the control laws

Components in electric drives

e.g. Single drive - sensorless vector control from Hitachi

Components in electric drives

e.g. Multidrives system from ABB

Components in electric drives

Components in electric drives

• Advantage: simple torque and speed control without

S = 1200 * 300 * (0.36 -0.28) * 0.04 /year = 1152 JD/year

The motor drives a load that has a characteristic

In general, load torque is a function of speed

Drive accelerates or decelerates depending

During acceleration, motor must supply not only

Elementary principles of mechanics

Linear motion, constant M

• First order differential equation for speed

Elementary principles of mechanics

- Normally is the case for electrical drives

• First order differential equation for angular frequency (or velocity)

Elementary principles of mechanics

dm  Angular acceleration (speed)

Elementary principles of mechanics

Combination of rotational and translational motions

r2M - Equivalent moment inertia of the

Elementary principles of mechanics – effect of gearing

Low speed applications use gear to utilize high speed motors

Elementary principles of mechanics – effect of gearing

Figure 1.8. Motion / time profile

Figure 1.9. Required speed / time profile

1884  0.02  10  37.68  10  47.68Nm; for 0  t  0.2s

Figure 1.10. Motor torque / time requirements

J t  J r  J e  25 .062  0.07238  25 .135 kgm 2 (1.15)

In absence of counterweight the la of energy conservation leads to:

Consequently the motor torque, Tem, yields:

Pem  Tem  m  90 .71 162 .22  14715 W (1.18)

On the other hand in presence of counterweight (1.16) becomes:

Tem ' m  h  m c  m cw   g  u (1.19)

Pem '  Tem 'm  30 .71 162 .22  4905 W (1.21)

Motor steady state torque-speed characteristic

Separately / shunt DC mch