Optical Sources & Detectors

Optical Fiber Communication System

TRANSMITTER RECEIVER
Fiber splice
1 1
2 2
3 3
Optical fiber
Coding Laser diode Photodiode
+ decoder

TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
 Requirements for a Fiber-Optic Source
1. Size and configuration compatible with optical fiber for launching light.
 Light output should be highly directional.
2. Must accurately track the electrical input signal to minimize distortion and
noise Source should be linear.
3. Should emit light at wavelengths where the fiber has low losses and low
dispersion and where the detectors are efficient.
4. Preferably capable of simple signal modulation over a wide bandwidth
extending from audio frequencies to beyond the GHz range.
5. Must couple sufficient optical power to overcome attenuation in the fiber
plus connector losses and leave adequate power to drive the detector.
6. Should have a very narrow spectral bandwidth in order to minimize
dispersion in the fiber.
7. Capable of maintaining a stable optical output which is largely unaffected
by changes in ambient conditions (e.g. temperature).
8. Essential that the source is comparatively cheap and highly reliable in
order to compete
 Requirements for Optical Detector

 High sensitivity at the operating wavelength

 High Fidelity
 Large electrical response to the optical signal
 Short response time to obtain a suitable bandwidth
 A minimum noise introduced by the detector
 Stability of performance characteristics
 Small Size
 Low bias voltage
 High reliability
 Low cost
 OPTICAL SOURCES
 An active component in an OFC system.
 Fundamental function is to convert electrical energy in the form of a
current into optical energy (light) in an efficient manner which allows
the light output to be effectively launched or coupled into the optical fiber.

Three main types of optical sources.

a) Wideband “continuous spectra” sources (incandescent lamps);
b) Monochromatic incoherent sources (light emitting diodes, LEDs);
c) Monochromatic coherent sources (Lasers).

 Gas lasers (He-Ne): Utilized in the early stages of optical communication.

 Development of the Semiconductor Injection Lasers and LEDs, together
with the substantial improvement in the properties of optical fibers, has given
prominence to these two specific sources.
 Historical Developments
 First generation optical sources: Designed to operate between 850 and 900nm
(around 850nm) because initially the properties of the semiconductor materials
used lent themselves to emission at this wavelength.
 Utilize MMSI fibers, which required the semiconductor lasers for reasonable
bandwidth (10MHz) and distances (several kilometers).
 Second generation optical sources: Operating between 1100 and 1600nm,
 Both material losses and dispersion are greatly reduced.
 Utilize wideband GI fiber systems and LED sources over long distances
without the need for intermediate repeaters.
 LEDs offer the advantage to relatively simple construction and operation
which affects the cost and extended trouble free life.
• Developments of single-mode fiber stimulated the development of single-mode
laser sources to take advantage of the extremely low dispersion offered by
single-mode fibers.
• These systems are ideally suited for extra wideband, very long-haul applications
( Telecommunications)
 Types of Optical Sources
• LED (Light Emitting Diodes)
• LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

LED LASER
Incoherent Coherent

Without Optical resonator With optical resonator

For multimode fibers only For multi and single mode fibers

Upto 100 Mbits/s Upto 10 Gbits/s

Comparison between LED and LASER
 LASER:Basic Operation

LASER
Photons

Generally Three Atomic processes:

 Absorption
 Spontaneous emission
 Stimulated emission
 Absorption and Emission Processes
Absorption
• A photon with certain energy is incident on an electron at the ground
state (lower energy level ),
• the electron absorbs the energy and shifts to the higher energy level (E2).
• The energy now acquired by the electron is (E2-E1).

A + h  A*

Rate of absorption;
Rabs = B12 () N1
N1 - population at lower level E1,
() - energy density of incident light and

B12 - constant of proportionality known as Einstein coefficient for induced absorption

 the probability of an induced transition from level 1 2
Spontaneous Emission
• After the absorption process the electron at the higher energy level is in an
excited state.
• It can stay in excited level for an average lifetime „sp’ it is not stimulated by
any other agent during this short stay.
• Excited atom undergoes a transition to the lower energy level at its own by
giving excess energy in the form of a photon .

A*  A + h

Rate of Spontaneous transitions

Rsp = A21 N2
A21 – Einstein coefficient for spontaneous emission and is a function of
frequency and properties of the material.
Stimulated Emission
• Once the external photon strikes to the excited atom, it leaves its position
from the higher energy level with emission of a photon of energy.
• Thus 2 photons are available at the output,one striking on the atom and
other coming out because of excited emission of two photons and the light
amplification takes place.
• Two photons are in same phase and traveling in the same direction.

A* + h = A + 2h

Rate of stimulated emission

Rst = B21 () N2
B21 – Einstein coefficient for stimulated emission and is a measure of
probability of emission by this process
 EINSTEIN’S PREDICTION
 In 1917, Einstein predicted that there must be second emission process to
establish thermodynamic equilibrium.
• Atoms move to excited state under action of incident light
• Excited atoms tend to return randomly to the lower energy state.
• It is likely that a stage may be reached when all atoms are excited.

 Violation of thermal equilibrium condition; N1>N2

 Einstein suggested that there could be an additional emission mechanism,

by which the excited atoms can make downward transitions.
 Predicted that the photons in the light field induce the excited atoms to fall
to lower energy state and give up their excess energy in the form of photons.

Stimulated Emission
 Conditions for Large Stimulated Emissions
 All three processes occur together with a balance between
absorption and emission.

Absorption and Emission process in steady state of material

 Two conditions to be satisfied for stimulated emissions to

overwhelm the spontaneous emissions are:
 The population of excited level should be greater that that
at the lower energy level and
 The radiation density in the medium should be very large.
 Population Inversion
• At thermal equilibrium : Photon absorption and emission processes take place
side by side, but because N1>N2 ; absorption dominates.
• Laser operation requires stimulated emission exclusively.

• To achieve a high percentage of

stimulated emission, a majority
of atoms should be at the higher
energy level than at the lower
level.

 Non-equilibrium state in which

N1<N2 : State of Population Population in a two energy level system: (a)
Inversion Boltzmann distribution for a system in thermal
equilibrium (N1>N2) (b) A non-equilibrium distribution
showing population inversion (N1<N2)

 How to achieve the state of Population Inversion ?

 Pumping
 Energy is to be supplied somehow to the laser medium to raise atoms from
the lower level to the excited level
 The process by which atoms are raised from the lower level to the upper
level is called pumping.

 PUMPING METHODS
• Optical Pumping (Solids, Transparent)
• Electrical Pumping (Gases, Conductive)
• Direct Conversion (Semiconductor materials)

 ACTIVE MEDIUM : Active Centres, Active medium

 METASTABLE STATES (life time 10-6 to 10-3 s)
 Foundation to the laser operation is the existence of metastable states.
 Energy Level Diagrams and P.I.

Energy level diagrams showing population inversion and lasing for two
non-semiconductor lasers: (a) Three level system - Ruby (crystal) laser; (b)
Four level system – He-Ne (gas) laser.
 Optical Feedback and Laser Oscillations
 Although PI is necessary for light amplification,  Not sufficient to make
the stimulated emissions dominate other processes.

 According to Einstein relations, for large stimulated emissions, large

radiation energy density ‘()’ is required to be present in the active
medium.
 The pair of mirrors helps to maintain a large radiation density in the
medium  Positive feedback of photons.

The basic laser structure incorporating plane mirrors

 Optical Resonator  Fabry-Perot Resonator

 Condition for Steady State Oscillation
• Light amplification implies a continuous and marked increase
in the amplitude of the light wave.
• For this to occur, it is necessary that a wave making a round trip inside the
resonator have to fulfill a phase condition in addition to amplitude condition.
 Phase delay must be some multiple of 2.

 All waves add up in amplitude by

constructive interferences. The
condition for amplification is
Fig.6 Condition of resonance

2L = m  ; ( m = 1,2,3,…)

where  is the refractive index of active medium and L is the optical

path. This is the Condition for resonance
 Threshold Conditions for Laser Oscillations
 For steady state conditions of laser oscillations  Gain in the
amplifying medium exactly balances the total losses.
 Although PI between energy levels for laser oscillations is established, it is
not alone sufficient for lasing action to occur.

 Aminimum or threshold gain within the amplifying medium

must be attained such as laser oscillations are initiated and
sustained.
 Determined by considering the change in energy of a light beam as it
passes through the amplifying medium.
• Threshold gain per unit length for a medium with attenuation coefficient ‘’
and gain coefficient ‘gth’ is given as
1 1
g th    ln
2L r1 r2

 For laser action the gain must be greater than the total loss in the cavity.
 Gain Curve or Saturation Gain
 The optical gain is not always increasing; it depends upon the
rate of stimulation emission.
The gain settles down at a value where the rate of production
of the excess inverted population is balanced by the rate of
decrease through stimulated emission. It happens when the
gain just balances the losses in the medium.
 The reduction in the population inversion
and consequent self-adjustment of gain
caused by the presence of light field is
called gain saturation.

• The gain saturation is the mechanism,

which adjusts the gain to a value where it Relative amplification in the laser
just balances the losses in the cavity so amplifying medium showing the
that steady oscillations can result. broadened laser transition line or gain
curve.
 Modes and Laser Output

• Frequency separation between

adjacent modes

c
 
2L

 As  is independent of m, the
frequency separation of adjacent
mode is the same irrespective of
their actual frequencies. a) Modes in the laser cavity.
(b) Longitudinal modes in the laser output.
 Longitudinal and Transverse Modes
 Modes are discrete resonant conditions determined by the physical
dimensions of cavity.

• Modes governed by axial dimension

of the resonant cavity
 Longitudinal or axial modes
c
 
2 L

• Modes determined by the cross-

sectional dimension of the optical
cavity  Transverse modes

 Can only be controlled by aperture or diameter of the optical cavity.

 Laser Block Components

Major Components:
 Active medium
 Pumping Source
 Mirrors
 Types of Lasers
• Solid State Laser (used in atmospheric and free space
links)

• Gas Lasers (used in atmospheric and free space links)

• Semiconductor Laser (used in advanced optical fiber

communication)
 SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS
 Specially fabricated p-n junction device that emits coherent
light when forward biased.

• First semiconductor laser by RN Hall of General Electric

R&D Labs, USA in 1962.
• Made from GaAs operate at low temp. and emit light in
near IR.
• Room temp. and continuous wave mode in 1970.
• Diode lasers are made to emit light anywhere in the
spectrum from the UV to IR.
• Small in size (0.1 mm long), Highly efficient ( 40%),
Operates at low powers.
 Optical Emission from Semiconductors
p-n Junction
 Width of depletion region and
magnitude of potential barrier
depend upon
• Carrier concentration in the p
and n regions and
• External applied voltages i.e
Forward or Reverse bias.
• Forward biasing reduces both
depletion region and potential
barrier and hence leads to a) Impurities and charge carriers at p-n junction
flow of current b) Energy band diagram

 Suitable semiconductor materials allow carrier recombination

with the emission of light
 Spontaneous Emission
 Increased concentration of minority carriers in the opposite type region in the
forward biased p-n diode leads to the recombination of carriers across the
bandgap.
 Recombination prominent in direct bandgap semiconductors.

• Energy released in e- – hole

recombination  Eg
- Radiative or Non radiative

hc
E g  hf 

1.24
(in m)  The p-n junction with forward bias giving
E g (ineV) spontaneous emission of photons.

 This spontaneous emission of light from within the diode structure is known as
Electroluminescence – Optical emission under application of electric field
 Carrier Recombination
 Light is emitted at site of carrier recombination which is
primarily close to the junction.

• Recombination may take

place through whole diode
structure as carriers diffuse
away from the junction
region

Carrier recombination giving spontaneous emission of

light in a p-n junction diode

• The amount of radiative recombination and the emission area within the
structure is dependent upon the semiconductor materials used and the
fabrication of the device.
Direct and Indirect Band Gap Materials

a) Direct Band gap b) Indirect Band gap

III. V group compounds like Semiconductors like
• GaAs (1.43 eV) • Si (1.12 eV),
• GaSb (0.73eV)
• Ge(0.67 eV)
• InAs (0.35 eV)
• InSb (0.18 eV) • GaP (2.26 eV)
 Stimulated Emission and Lasing
 Carrier population inversion achieved by injection of electrons
into conduction of the material.

• At absolute Zero; No electron in

CB (Fig. a)
• Injected electron, fills the lower
energy states in CB upto injection
energy- Quasi-Fermi level for
electrons EFc
• Creates an equal amount of holes
in VB for charge neutrality – The filled electron states for an intrinsic direct
Quasi-Fermi level for holes EFv bandgap semiconductor at absolute zero: (a) in
equilibrium; (b) with high carrier injection.

 Incident photon of energy Eg < Eq= EFc-Efv (Quasi Fermi levels gap energy)
cannot be absorbed; necessary CB states are filled, however, these can induce a
downward transition of an electron from filled CB state into empty VB states i.e
stimulating emission of another photon.
 Basic condition for stimulated emission is therefore, dependent on the
Quasi-Fermi level separation energy (Eq) as well as bandgap energy (Eg)

EFc-EFv > hf > Eg

 An ideal situation, whereas at normal temperature the

distribution of electrons and holes is less well defined but
condition for stimulated emission is maintained.

 Population Inversion at p-n junction may be obtained by heavy doping of

both the p and n type materials (degenerative doping).
 Heavy doping leads to shifting of Fermi levels into filled states or lowering
the boundary between filled and empty states.
 At thermal equilibrium or no applied bias; the Fermi energy has the same
value throughout the material – no direct conduction
 Under forward bias equal to bandgap voltage  direct conduction starts
 • At high injection carrier density in such a
junction there exist an active region near
the depletion layer that contains
simultaneously degenerate populations of
electrons and holes (doubly degenerate)

• For this region the condition of stimulated

emission is satisfied for EM radiation of
frequency
Eg/h < f < (EFc- EFv)/h

• Therefore, any radiation of this

frequency confined to the active region
The degenerate p-n junction: (a) with no
applied bias; (b) with strong forward bias
will be amplified.

 Degenerative doping distinguishes a p-n junction which provides

stimulated emission from one which gives only spontaneous emission.
• Must be noted that, High impurity concentration within semiconductors
causes, the donor or accepter impurity levels to merge with filled bands -
„bandtails states’ extend into forbidden energy gap.
• Laser transitions may take place from or up to these states; - thus giving a
energy less than the bandgap energy (Eg).
• Hence, the effective lasing wavelength can be varied within electro-
luminescent semiconductors used to fabricate the junction lasers through
impurity concentration.
 For example, lasing wavelength of GaAs may be varied between 850
to 900 nm (Best performance achieved in 880-910 nm band)

• A further requirement to establish lasing in junction diode involves the

provision of optical feedback to give laser oscillations.
• May be achieved by formation of an optical cavity (Fabry-Perot) within the
structure by polishing the end faces of junction diode to act as mirrors (Each
end polished or cleaved and sides roughened to prevent unwanted light
emission)
 Heterojunctions
 Homojunction:A single p-n junction fabricated from a single
crystal semiconductor material.
 Hetero-junction is an interface between two adjoining single
crystal semiconductors with different bandgap energies.
 The radiative properties of a junction diode may be improved by use of
heterojunctions.
 Devices fabricated with heterojunctions are said to have Heterostructure

Classified as: Isotype orAnisotype

1. An Isotype (n-n or p-p): provides a potential barrier within the structure
which is useful for the confinement of minority carriers to a small active
region (Carrier confinement)
 Effectively reduces the carrier diffusion length and thus volume within
the structure where radiative recombination may take place.
 Widely used for fabrication of ILDs and high radiance LEDs.
  Extensively used in LEDs to provide a transparent layer close to active
region which substantially reduces the absorption of light emitted from
structure.

2. Anisotype (p-n) with sufficiently large bandgap differences improve injection

efficiency of either electrons or holes.

 Both types of heterojunction provides a dielectric step due to

the different refractive indices at either side of junction.
 Used to provide radiation confinement to the active region (i.e. walls of
an optical waveguide)
 The efficiency of the containment depends upon the magnitude of the
step which is dictated by the bandgap energies and wavelength of the
radiations.

• First used to provide potential barriers in injection lasers

 Implementation of DH structure resulting carrier and optical confinement
reduced the threshold current by a factor of around 100. (Threshold
current  50 to 200 mA)
 Double Heterojunction Injection Laser

(a) The layer structure, with an

applied forward bias

(b) Energy band diagram with a p-p

heterojunction on the left and a p-n
heterojunction on the right

(c) The corresponding refractive

index diagram and electric field
distribution.
 Careful fabrication of heterojunctions is very important to reduce defects at
the interface (misfit dislocations or inclusions) which cause nonradiative
recombination and thus reduce the internal quantum efficiency.

 Lattice matching is therefore an important criterion for the materials used to

form interface.
 Ideal Heterojunction should have a very small mismatch of no greater
than 0.1%
 Not possible to obtain such good lattice parameter matching with
semiconductor materials required to give emission at desired
wavelength.

 Much higher lattice parameter mismatch is often tolerated ( 0.6%)

 Semiconductor Materials for ILDs
 Semiconductor materials used for injection lasers must broadlyfulfill
several criteria:

 p-n junction formation: Materials must lend themselves to formation of

p-n junction with suitable characteristics for carrier injection

 Efficient electroluminescence: Device fabricated must have high

probability of radiative transitions and hence a high internal quantum
efficiency.
 Useful emission wavelength: Material must emit light of suitable
wavelength to be utilized with current optical fibers and detectors.
 Ideally, they must allow for bandgap variation with appropriate
doping and fabrication in order that emission at desired wavelength
may be achieved.

 Direct bandgap III -V alloy semiconductors: Al, Ga, In, P, As,Sb;

 Binary, Ternary and Quarternary with single and double heterojunctions
Some common material systems used in fabrication
of electroluminescent sources for OFC
Material systems Useful wavelength Substrate
Active layer/confining layer range (nm)

GaAs/Alx Ga1-x As 800-900 GaAs

GaAs
GaAs/Inx Ga1-x P 900
GaAs
Aly Ga1-y As/Alx Ga1-x As 650-900
GaAs
Iny Ga1-y As/Inx Ga1-x P 850-1100
GaAs
Ga As1-x Sbx /Ga1-y Aly As1-x Sbx 900-1100
GaSb
Ga1-y Aly As1-x Sbx / GaSb 1000-1700
InP
In1-x Gax Asy P1-y /InP 920-1700
Thank You