Research Questions

Hypothesis Formulation
 Propositions

Research Questions Hypotheses

Features of Good Research Questions
 Having a good idea for research is not enough. You must translate
that idea into good research questions.
 Researching a question imposes demands on a researcher’s time
and resource. The resources should not be expended to answer
trivial questions.
Asking Answerable Questions
Frame specific questions that can be answered through
application of scientific research methods.
Asking the Right Questions
Ask empirical questions that can be answered by objective
observation.
Asking Important Questions
A question is important if answering it will clarify relationships
among variables known to affect the system under study.
Examples of Research Questions
Management Dilemma:
 Our sales are declining for the last few months.
Management Question:
 What could we do to increase sales?
Research Questions:
 What are the factors impacting sales?
 What are the factors to be focused on to increase sales?
 What specific reforms can improve sales performance?
 How does sales in this factory compare to industry
norms?
HYPOTHESIS
What is Hypothesis?

 A tentative explanation of the relationship between two

or more variables.

 A logically conjectured relationship between two or more

variables.

 An assumption about the research issue.

 It is figuring out the solution to the problem before we

start.
Sources of Hypothesis
There are two sources of hypothesis:

Observation Theory

Hypothesis
Types of Hypothesis
 Descriptive
 Correlational
 Explanatory
 Directional
 Non-directional
 Null
 Alternative
Descriptive Hypothesis
 Descriptive hypothesis states the existence, size,
form, or nature of some variables.
 The purpose is to encourage researchers to
crystallize their thinking about the likely
relationships to be found.
 There is not much difference between the
proposition and the descriptive hypothesis.
Descriptive Hypothesis
 There is only one variable (dependent
variable)
 There is no independent variable.
 It is only a partial picture.
Relational Hypothesis
Correlational Hypothesis
 This hypothesis suggests that the two variables are
connected.
 The variables occur together in some specified
manner. They co-vary.
Explanatory (Causal) Hypothesis
 This hypothesis states the implications or effects of variable
on the other.
 Causal relationships can be:
 Unidirectional – Variable A influences variable B, but not vice
versa.
 Bidirectional – Each variable influences the other.
An increase in family income leads to an increase in the
percentage of income saved and vice versa.
Directional and Non-directional
Directional (If-Then Statements)

 This indicates the direction of the relationship between the

variables (positive, negative, more than, less than).
Directional and Non-directional
Non-directional
 This could be formulated either because the relationships or differences have
never been previously explored and hence there is no basis or clue for
indicating the direction.

 There have been conflicting findings in previous research studies on the

variables.

 Hence, the current researcher might only be able to hypothesize that there
would be a significant relationship but the direction may not be clear.
Null and Alternative Hypotheses
Null Hypothesis (Statistical or Testing Hypothesis):
 The null hypothesis is a neutral position.
 The population correlation between two variables is equal to zero
or that the mean difference in the two groups in the population
is equal to zero.
 In general, the null hypothesis is expressed as no (significant)
relationship, or no (significant) difference between the variables.

Alternative Hypothesis:
 The alternative hypothesis is the opposite of the null.
 It is a statement expressing a relationship between two variables
or indicating difference between groups.
What are the Features (Criteria) of
Good Hypotheses?
 Hypothesis should be clearly and precisely stated. There
should be no ambiguity in the variables.
 Hypothesis should be testable empirically. It is useless if it
cannot be tested empirically.
 Hypothesis should state the expected (articulated)
relationship between the variables.
 Hypothesis should be limited in scope.
 Hypothesis should state the conditions and circumstances
under which it is supposed to apply. The context and study
units must be clear.
 Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts.
 Hypothesis should suggest the research design likely to be
most appropriate.