Fundamentals of Plasma Simulation (I)

• 核融合基礎学（プラズマ・核融合基礎学）
• 李継全（准教授）/岸本泰明（教授）/今寺賢志（D1）
• 2007.4.9 — 2007.7.13

Lecture two (2007.4.)

Part one: Basic concepts & theories of plasma physics
➣ Basic descriptions of plasma
Basic plasma equations
Single particle orbits
Plasma kinetic description
Fluid equations
Fluid/kinetic hybrid model
Gyrofluid model
MHD & reduced MHD
Classification of equations (Poisson; wave; diffusion)

Reference books: F.F. Chen, Introduction of plasma physics

S Ichimaru, Basic principles of plasma physics 1
……
How to describe a plasma?

Since a plasma may behave collectively or like an assembly of individual

particles, so we have following three approaches to describe it

1. Single Particle Approach. (Incomplete in itself).

Equations of particle motion → orbits of particles.

2. Kinetic Theory.
Boltzmann Equation → statistical description → transport coefficients

3. Fluid Model (MHD & reduced MHD).

Moments of kinetic equation → macroscopic description (Density; Velocity,
Pressure (temperature), Currents, etc.)

All descriptions should be consistent. Sometimes they are only different ways to
approximately look at the same thing.

Further, some approximate models have been developed such as: fluid-kinetic hybrid
model; gyrofluid model.

2
Basic equations of plasma physics
Electric and magnetic fields (E & B) are generally determined by Maxwell’s
equations, with corresponding boundary conditions and the sources (charges and
currents). Gauss’s law

  E  4 

No magnetic poles B  0 
 1 B
Faraday law  E  
c t 
 4  1 E
Ampere’s law B  J
c c t
Sometimes E & B are expressed in terms of an electric potential φ and vector
potential A:   
E ( r , t )   ( r , t )  A( r , t ) B( r , t )    A( r , t )
ct
In this case, electromagnetic field equations are written in the form

1 2
1 A
2  4 
  2
  4 ( r , t )  A
2
J (r , t )
c t 2 c t 2 c
1  
With Lorentz gauge  A  0
c t 3
Basic equations of plasma physics (cont.)

Equation of motion
The motion of charged particles is determined by the electromagnetic fields through
the equations of motion – Lorentz equation
 
d i Fi qi  1  
  ( E   i  B)
dt mi mi c

dxi 
 i
dt

The forces include two contributions from external electromagnetic field and also
internal field, which is produced by other particles. The latter should be evaluated
self-consistently.

Hence, the electromagnetic forces in a plasma depends on the current and charge
densities which are determined by the collective particle interaction.

4
Kinetic equations

To describe a plasma with a large number of particles, one can solve the coupled
system of Maxwell’s equations and the equations of motion for each particle. This is
a terrible job!
However, there are more efficient methods to solve the plasma dynamics using
statistical approximation – kinetic equation.

Consider the single particle distribution function f(t, r, v) which gives the density of
particles in the six-dimensional space (r,v), The single particle distribution function
satisfies the Boltzmann equation
f  q  1   f 
   f  ( E    B )    f   
t m c  t  c
The charge and current densities can be evaluated as
       
 (r , t )   qs  f s (r , , t )d 3
s
J (r , t )   
s
qs f s ( r , , t )d 3

To describe a plasma, it needs only to solve Maxwell equations and kinetic equation!
5
Single Particle Approach

6
Single Particle Approach
– orbits & drifts of particle in electromagnetic fields.

Although a plasma behaves collectively and the dynamics should be described by

statistical approach, a lot of plasma phenomena can be helpfully understood in
terms of single-particle motion.
The motion of charged particles in assumed electric and magnetic field can provide
insight into many important physical properties of plasmas.

Equation of motion + Maxwell equations

 
  1 B( t , r )
d i Fi qi  1    E (t , r )  
  [ E ( t , r )   i  B( t , r )]
dt mi mi c c t
 
dxi   4  1 E ( t , r )
 i   B( t , r )  J
dt c c t

→ Particle orbits in various given electromagnetic fields

7
Gyro motion & Larmor radius

L
Guiding center

From equation of motion, we can easily know that particle moves along the magnetic
field with υ//0 and gyrates around the filed. Here the second magnetic field produced
by moving charged particle is ignored!
Orbit of charged particle is
 
 x  x   cos( g t   )
Initial velocity ofcharged
 particle in 0

magnetic field  0  (  0 , // 0 )  g

 
 y  y  sin( g t   )
Charged particle is only experienced 0
g
 
Lorentz force q   B z  z   t

m  0 //


qB v mcv 
gyrogrequency  g  gyroradius  L  
mc g qB
8
Gyration is the most basic motion of charged particle in a magnetized plasma!
 Electric field drifts (E×B drift)

Equation of motion is

 d //
 m dt  qE //

 d   qE   q   B

 dt m mc
 
cE  B
The “E × B drift” of the gyrocenter is d 
B2

If E is non-uniform, it may cause a modification of Larmor radius effect

 
    2
   2  cE  B
2

E (r )  E  (  L   ) E   E
L
2  d   1  L
  2
2  4  B

Homework: Problem 3
 
Derive the orbit of positive charged particle q with initial velocity [  0  ( 0 , // 0 )] in a
constant uniform electric field (0,E┴,E//) and magnetic field (0,0,B), express the 9
velocity of particle gyrocenter.
Drifts due to general force F
Lorentz equation is

d  F q  
  B
dt m mc

E×B drift can be generalized by substituting qE with a general constant force

term F. The resulting particle drift generated by this constant force is
 
c( F  B )
F 
qB 2

This general force can be gravity, force due to non-uniform magnetic field
(gradient or curvature)

10
Magnetic field gradient drifts

Expanding the magnetic field at the Equation of motion becomes

location of the guiding center 
dv ( 0 ) q  ( 0 )  
   m  v  B( x c )
 dt c
B  B0  c  B0 
dv (1) q  (1)   q  (0)  
m  v  B ( x c )  v   c  B
dt c c
Magnetic gradient produces a force on
the guiding center of charged particle
Averaging on gyro-motion
due to the magnetic moment, i.e.,

2
mv
m 2
 v
(0)
 c   
F   B   B

2qB q
2B 
 mc   2  B  B
Gradient drift   B  B
 VB 
2qB 3 qB 2 11
Magnetic field curvature drifts
When the B field lines are curved and the particle
has a velocity v// along the field, another drift
occurs.

A particle which moves along a curved magnetic

field line experiences a centrifugal force on its
guiding center. This force is (often convenient to
have this expressed in terms of the field
gradients.)

Rc 2 1
  Gradient and curvature drifts
Fc  m 2   m // 2 ( B   )B
2
// are related through Maxwell’s
Rc B
equations, which depends on
In the frame of the guiding center a force the current density j. A
appears because the plasma is rotating about particular case of interest is j =
the center of curvature. 0: vacuum fields.
B
Curvature drift velocity (B )r  
Rc
 
mc   2    1 2  cRc  B
c  4
B  [( B   ) B]
//
 B   c   m //  m   2 2
2
qB  2  qB
12
Rc
Drifts in varying electric field
– polarization drift
If electric field E is time-varying, the particle experiences a acceleration,
 
d d  cE  B 
 d   
dt dt  B 
2

In the frame of the guiding centre which is accelerating, a force is felt except for
the force due to uniform electric filed.
 
d  EB
Fp  mc  
2 
dt  B 
An additional drift is produced as   

mc d E  B   mc dE
Polarization drift  p  2  2   B  2 
qB dt  B  qB dt

Physical meaning of polarization drift:

If electric field is constant, particle experiences E×B drift with a constant
Larmor radius, when direction of E is changing with time, the radius of gyro-orbit
suddenly changes and produce a polarization drift velocity.

13
Remarks for single particle drifts
All these drift velocities and the particle orbit above can be derived directly by
solving the motion of particle with an initial velocity (υ┴0, υ//0) in assumed time-
varying non-uniform electric E(t, x) and magnetic fields B(t, x), i.e.,

d i qi   1    Gyromotion; electric field drift
 [ E ( t , x )   i  B( t , x )]
dt mi c with Larmor radius modification;
 magnetic field gradient and
dxi  
  i with  0  (  0 , // 0 ) curvature drifts; polarization
dt drift; magnetic mirror.

If drifts depend on the charge, a current can be produced as j= en(vi-ve). So

polarization drift; magnetic field gradient and curvature drifts cause a current.

These drifts have been determined by assumed electric and magnetic fields. They
describe test particle motion. However, it should be noticed that the currents due to
the drifts alter the fields. If these changes are small compared to the background
field it is justified to apply the drift model. The derived particle drifts do not contain
any collective behavior. For this reason it is a nontrivial aspect to compare particle
and fluid plasma drifts.

Hence, single particle approach has ignored the interaction among charged particles,
14
it is only suitable for enough low density plasma.
Plasma Kinetic Description

15
Plasma Kinetic Theory
– why need kinetic description
Many particle: For a plasma, the plasma parameter is g=1/(nλ3d)<<1. Thus a
plasma consists of a very large number of particles. It is too tough work to calculate
the orbits of all particles even if for assumed electric and magnetic fields.

Long-range force: The charged particles of a plasma are both responding to the
electromagnetic fields and acting as their sources. This means charged particle
moving under the influence of both the external fields and the fields generated by
the particles themselves. Namely, the plasma behaves collectively. It is almost
impossible to calculate the motion of all particles in a plasma self-consistently.

Fields as an average: Actually, the orbits of all particles are not so important in a
plasma, the spatial and temporal development of statistical measurable quantities
as a fluid, i.e., particle density, particle flux, temperature or pressure, heat flux, and
so on, are more interesting. Because the collective behavior of the charged particles
is a fundamental property of plasmas, we do not always need to know anything
about the individual particles but, instead, we are interested in the average
properties of the gas or fluid.

The description of these quantities is a matter of statistical physics, which is

appropriately started using a kinetic description of plasma. 16
Kinetic description of plasma
– Boltzmann equation

“kinetic” means it is relating to motion of particles. So a kinetic description includes

the effects of motion of charged particles in a plasma.

An exact, microscopic kinetic description is based on and encompasses the motions

of all the individual charged particles in the plasma. Our interest is in the average
rather than individual particle properties in plasmas, so, an appropriate average
process can be taken to obtain a general plasma kinetic equation—Boltzmann
equation

Two ways to derive Boltzmann equation for a plasma

Klimontovich equation approach: It deals with the exact density of particles in the
six-dimensional phase space (r; v) by using δ-functions.

Liouville equation approach: This approach starts with distribution functions and
avoids δ-functions and ensemble averaging. (we will not talk about this approach in
this lecture) 17
Klimontovich equation approach
Consider a single particle with orbit (xi(t);vi(t) ) in 6-dimensional phase space. The
“density” of this particle is, i.e., the distribution function of single particle,
     
N (t , x, )   [ x  xi (t )] [   i ( t )]
For particles in a plasma, the microscopic distribution function is the summation
  N
   
Klimontovich N ( t , x , )    [ x  xi ( t )] [   i ( t )]
m

i 1
Here xi(t) and vi(t) are the spatial and velocity trajectories as the particles move.

6-dimensional phase space

Six-dimensional phase space with coordinates
volume element axes (x,y,z) and (vx,vy,vz) and volume element
v in phase space
∆x ∆v ∆x∆v

∆v
All particles (i=1, N) have time-dependent
(x(t);v(t)) position xi(t) and velocity vi(t). The particle
path at subsequent times is a curve in phase
∆x space. 18
x
Basic equations for particle simulation
Here xi(t) and vi(t) are determined by the equations of motion and Maxwell
equations,  
dxi    E  4 
m
 i 
dt
  B  0
d i Fi qi  1   
  ( E   i  B)  1 B
dt mi mi c  E  
c t
The microscopic sources are determined by 
 4  m 1 E
     B  J 
 m ( x, t )   qs  N sm ( x, , t )d 3   qs ( x  xi ) c c t
s s
m   m     
J ( x , t )   qs  N s ( x, , t )d    qs i ( x  xi )
3

s s
  N
   
with N ( t , x , )    [ x  xi ( t )] [   i ( t )]
m

i 1

These equations above establish a complete kinetic description of a plasma, which

involves all information of particle motion with the self-generated fields. This
description for a plasma provide a basic idea to numerically simulate the behavior of
plasma – particle simulation
PIC (particle-in-cell) method: Dawson; Birdsall & Langdon; ….
This simulation needs a large number of particles ~10e+9 to have good statistics of
19
collective behavior, for example, to remove “noise” problem.
Klimontovich equation
The description above yields too much detailed information than we need for
practical purposes. We need to reduce it so that we can obtain some physically
measurable quantities like density, temperature in a plasma.

To do so, it may be convenient to have a single evolution equation for the entire
microscopic distribution. Such an equation can be obtained by calculating the total
time derivative of microscopic distribution:
 
dN m   dx  d   N    
        [ x  xi (t )] [   i (t )]
dt  t dt x dt   i 1

dg ( f ( x )) dg df
By using relations: g( x ) ( x  y )  g( y ) ( x  y )  
dx df dx
 
dN m N
  dxi  d i      
       [ x  xi (t )] [   i (t )]  0
dt i 1  t dt x dt  
Inserting equation of motion, we have

Klimontovich equation N m
dx N m q  m  1   m   N m
    E ( t , x )    B ( t , x )  0
t dt x m c   20
Properties of the Klimontovich equation

Klimontovich equation together with the Maxwell’s equation and the definitions for
charge and current densities also provide an exact and complete description of the
plasma dynamics!

Klimontovich equation actually incorporates all particle equations of motion into one
equation since its “characteristic curves” in (t,x,v) phase space are the equations of
motion.

Conservation of particles (continuity):

     
dN m ( t , x , ) N m ( t , x , ) dx   d  
    x N m ( t , x , )    N m ( t , x , )  0
dt t dt dt

No creation or destruction of charged particles as they move their trajectories

determined by electric and magnetic fields in a plasma!

21
From Klimontovich equation to
Plasma kinetic equation

Since the Klimontovich distribution is a distribution of delta functions, it still

requires basically to follow all individual particles. This is not feasible in typical
application even on modern supercomputers.

We need an average procedure to get a smooth version of microscopic distribution.

– Rigorous way: ensemble averaging over infinite number of realizations (i.e., all
possible states). This is related to the statistic mechanics with the concepts like
“temperature”.
– Simple and more physical way: averaging over a small volume ∆x∆v in 6-
dimensional phase space.

Conditions for average procedure:

•The box size should be much larger than the mean space of inter-particles in a
plasma to include many particles so that the statistical fluctuation is small
•The box size should be smaller than, or of order of the Deybe length so that the
collective plasma response on the Debye length scale can be included.

Hence, n-1/3<< ∆x<λD 22

Averaging procedure
The average distribution function of Nm will be defined as the number of particles in
such a small 6-dimensional phase space box divided by the volume of the box from
(x,v) to (x+∆x, v+∆v)
 d x d  N
3 3 m
    ns V V
f s ( t , x , )  N m ( t , x , )  lim 
n 1 / 3  x   D x 3  3 n 1lim
/3
 x   D  d x d 
3 3
V V

Define the fluctuation (deviation from the averaged level) of complete microscopic
distribution function Nm from the averaged one fs, i.e.,
     
N m ( t , x ,  )  f s ( t , x ,  )  N m ( t , x ,  )
 
We have N m ( t , x ,  )  0 f

Distribution function
s
The average distribution function fs represents the
smoothed properties of the plasma species for ∆x
>λD; the microscopic distribution δNm represents the
“discrete particle” effects of individual charged Nm
particles for n-1/3<< ∆x<λD .
Similar separation for the fields
     
E m (t , x, )  E (t , x, )  E (t , x, )
      ∆x ∆v
B m (t , x, )  B(t , x, )  B(t , x, ) 23
   
E ( t , x ,  )  0  B ( t , x , )  0
Fundamental plasma kinetic equation

Substituting these forms into the Klimontovich equation and averaging it using the
procedure above, we obtain our fundamental plasma kinetic equation:

f s  f s q   m 1   m  f s q   m 1   m  N m
   E    B   E  c   B   
t x m  c   m  
The left side describes collective effects in the plasma, i.e., the evolution of the
smoothed, average distribution function in response to the smoothed, average
electric and magnetic fields.

The right side represents the small two-particle correlations between discrete
charged particles within about a Debye length of each other. In fact, the term on the
right represents the collisional effects, i.e., Coulomb collision effects on the average
distribution function fs.

Similarly averaging the microscopic Maxwell equations and charge and current
density sources, we obtain corresponding average equations that have no extra
correlation terms.

24
Fokker-Planck equation or Boltzmann equation
Rewriting the right side of the fundamental kinetic equation as (∂fs/∂t)c, a collision
operator on the average distribution function fs. We can have Fokker-Planck (FP) or
Boltzmann equation
f s  f s q  1   f s  f s 
   ( E    B)   
t x m c   t  c
The form of the collision term on the right side depends on the nature of collisions:
– Boltzmann equation: for hard collisions and localized in space and time.
– FP equation: for collision through cumulative contribution of many small angle
Coulomb scatterings.

With corresponding averaged Maxwell equations and charge and current densities,
   
 ( x, t )   qs  f s ( x, , t )d 3
  1 B
  E  4 ;  E  
c t  s
    
J ( x, t )   qs  f s ( x, , t )d 3
  4  1 E
  B  0;  B  J
c c t s

This is a set of fundamental equations that provide a complete kinetic description of

a plasma. All terms in equation are expressed by smoothed, average quantities. The
particle discreteness effects (correlations of particles due to their Coulomb
interactions within a Debye sphere) in a plasma are included in the collsion operator
25
on the right side of Boltzmann equation.
Reduced forms of Boltzmann equation

Electrostatic kinetic equation:

For low pressure plasmas where the plasma currents are negligible and the
magnetic field is external and constant in time, we can use an electrostatic
approximation for the electric field (E =-  ), Boltzmann equation becomes
electrostatic kinetic equation
f s  f s q 1   f s  f s 
   (     B )   
t x m c   t  c

Conservative form of Boltzmann equation:

Since x and v are independent, and electric and magnetic are independent of v, we
can have a conservative form because (in the absence of collisions) motion (of
particles or along the characteristics) is incompressible in the six-dimensional phase
space
f s     q  1     f s 
    f s      ( E    B ) f s    
t x   m c   t c

Homework: problem 4
26
Derive this conservation form of Boltzmann equation.
Reduced forms of Boltzmann equation –
Vlasov equation
For the fluctuation with short time scale in high temperature laboratory plasmas or
space plasmas, the collision is typically small, i.e., ω>>ν, we have so-called Vlasov
equation
f s  f s q  1   f s
   ( E    B)  0
t x m c 

Properties of Vlasov equation

1. Due to no collision, the filamentary structures in Vlasov plasma can become more
contorted as time evolution. Hence, Vlasov code can follow the distribution
function in physics for long time only before the numerical problem occurs.
2. Due to no collision, Vlasov equation has no discrete particle correlation (Coulomb
collision) effects in it, it is completely reversible (in time) and its solutions follow
the collisionless single particle orbits in the six-dimensional phase space.
3. A Vlasov plasma is stable since the stable distribution with d fs/dε<0 minimizes
the kinetic energy.
4. Any free energy related to dfs/dε<0 may drive collective instability, profile non-
homogeneity; velocity anisotropies; flows such as beams and currents.
27
Reduced forms of Boltzmann equation (cont.) –
gyro-averaged kinetic equations
In a magnetized plasma, many plasma phenomena involve processes which are slow
compared to the gyrofrequency and which vary slowly in space compared to the
Larmor radius of individual ions or electrons. That is, the fluctuations in plasma
are characterized by longer spatial scale compared to the gyroradii (L>>ρg) and
by slow processes compared to the gyrofrequency (ω<<ωc).

Under these limitations, it is possible to do two approximations:

1. Average the Boltzmann equation over the gyromotion angle;
2. Expand the Boltzmann equation around the guiding center with a small
gyroradius.

Procedure to derive gyro-averaged kinetic equations

1. Change the independent phase space variables from (x; v) to phase space
variables with guiding center coordinates, energy, magnetic moment, and gyro-
phase angle, i.e., (xg ;ε; μ, φ)
2. Splitting the distribution function fs into gyro-phase independent part <fs>φ and
dependent part fs-<fs>φ
3. Get gyro-averaged kinetic equations by gyro-averaging Boltzmann equation – So,
the dimensionality in phase space is reduced! 28
Two typical gyro-averaged kinetic equations:

Drift-kinetic equation:
This is a form of Fokker-Planck (Boltzmann or Vlasov) equation, which describes
the evolution of distribution function fs under conditions where it occurs slowly in
time compared to the gyro-period and the gradually in space compared to the gyro-
radius of particle orbits. Actually, this is an equation of fs at the guiding center
position xg. In principle, we should transform the results back from guiding center
to real space coordinates after solving it. However, this procedure is usually
neglected since the gyroradius is small and the effect is ignorable.
The conditions for applying this model are: ω<<ωc ; k┴ρg<<1

Gyro-kinetic equation:
This equation is similar to drift-kinetic equation, but it can describe the significant
change of electromagnetic field across a Larmor radius by averaging their effect
over the Larmor orbit.
The conditions for applying this model are: ω<<ωc ; k┴ρg~1

J Wesson, TOKAMAK (second edition), 29

1997
Derivation of drift kinetic equation
  
Change variables from ( x; ) to ( x g ;  ,  ,  ) with
   1 m 2
x g  x   g ;   m(    // );  
2 2

2 2B
Re-write kinetic equation by using new variables

f s dx g f s d f s d f s d f s  f s 
          
t dt x g dt  dt  dt   t  c

~ ~ ~
Define f s  f s  f s  f s 
 f s with fs 0

~
where f s is small quantity with Larmor radius order
g   q 
Assuming  ~ k  g ; ~  c ;    ~  c ; s E //   ~  c
L t m

qs   EB
E    ~ ~  c ;  ~  c
m t

30
Derivation of drift kinetic equation (cont.)
The change of total kinetic energy
  can be subject to the gain of energy of the guiding
center in the electric field qs E  dx g and the change of the perpendicular energy due
to a change of the magnetic field d    dB / B

d  dx m 2 B
 qs E  
g

dt dt 2 B t
d
 0  due to magnetic moment conservation
dt
    
dx g B  B cE  B mc  2  mc  //2   
  //   D   //  2
 3
B   B  4
[ B  ( B   ) B ]
dt B B B 2qs B qs B
 guiding center drift velocity

Substitute all relations into rewritten kinetic equation in guiding center coordinate
and performing gyro-averaging, we can get
   
f s ( t , x g ,  ,  )   f s ( t , x g ,  ,  ) d f s ( t , x g ,  ,  )  
 sf ( t , x g , , )  

 ( //   D )      
 
 
t x g dt  
  t c 


This equation is used in linear and nonlinear studies of low frequency and long
wavelength instabilities, in neoclassical transport theory where the contribution
31
from Larmor gyration is not so important.
Gyrokinetic equation J Wesson, TOKAMAK (second edition), 1997
Drift-kinetic equation with the lowest order is sufficient for most applications.
However, like the guiding center orbits it is based on, it is incorrect at second order
in the small gyroradius expansion. More precise and complete equation is
gyrokinetic equation.

In deriving gyrokinetic equation, we can still do gyro-averaging over gyro-phase

angle. Instead of the assumption k   g  1 in drift kinetic equation, we have another
small quantity    g L  1 where L is the equilibrium perpendicular gradient scale
length. The distribution function is expended as
f s  f s 0  f s1
 
Writing the      x ) and the perturbed electric
 perturbed  quantity as
~ exp( i t k
field is E    iA the perturbed distribution function can be obtained by
expanding the linearized kinetic equation for isotropic f 0,
f 0    
   b  k
f s1  qs  g( x,  ,  )e iL
L
 c
g satisfies the gyrokinetic equation
 
g     f b   f  k    k    2 c k   
  // bˆ  g  ik    g g    0  0 
  J 0  q s (   // A// )  J 1     B// 
t     c    c  k     c  

In long wavelength limit and L→0, the distribution function is reduced to the result
32
from drift kinetic equation.
References for the derivation of nonlinear gyrokinetic equation
(classical and modern gyrokinetic theories, collected by T S Hahm)
1. Hazeltine and Meiss, Plasma confinement (book)
2. Frieman and Chen, Phys. Fluids 25, 502 (1982)
3. Lee, Phys. Fluids 26, 556 (1983)
4. Dubin, Krommes, Oberman, and Lee, Phys. Fluids 26, 3524 (1983)
5. Hagan and Frieman, Phys. Fluids 28, 2641 (1985)
6. Hahm, Lee, and Brizard, Phys. Fluids 31, 1940 (1988)
7. Hahm, Phys. Fluids 31, 2670 (1988)
8. Brizard, J. Plasma Phys. 41, 541 (1989)
9. Brizard, Phys. Plasmas 2, 459 (1995)
10. Hahm, Phys. Plasmas 3, 4658 (1996)
11. Brizard, Phys. Plasmas 7, 4816 (2000)
12. Sugama, Phys. Plasmas 7, 466 (2000)
13. Brizard, Phys. Plasmas 7, 3238 (2000)
14. Wang, Phys. Rev. E. 64, 056404 (2001)
15. Qin and Tang, Phys. Plasmas 11, 1052 (2004)
16. Brizard and Hahm, Foundations of nonlinear gyrokinetic theory, Rev.
33
Mod. Phys. 79, 1-468(2007)
Fluid description of plasma

34
Fluid description of plasma
‘Fluid Description’ refers to simplified treatment of plasma which does not need the
details of velocity dependence.

Why fluid description:

The single particle approach is rather complicated. We need a more statistical
approach because we can’t follow each particle separately.
If the evolution of distribution function in velocity space is important we have to use
the Boltzmann equation. It is a kind of particle conservation equation.
For many plasma applications, fluid moment (density, flow velocity, temperature)
descriptions of a charged particle species in a plasma are sufficient.

Advantages of fluid description:

Fluid equations essentially involve 3 dimensions in geometric space. This advantage
is especially important in computer simulations.
Fluid description is explicit to understand the significance of fluid quantities such as
density and temperature. Fluid variables are macroscopically measurable quantities
in experiments. Microscopic approach is mathematically difficult and often not
useful to follow the evolution of macroscopic variables
Omit some important physical processes (but describe others); Provide tractable
approaches to many problems. 35
Fluid equations for a plasma
Fluid equations are probably the most widely used equations for the description of
inhomogeneous plasmas.

Two ways to derive fluid equations:

1. Derive the moment equations of the Boltzmann equation or Vlasov equation;
2. Derive them by using properties like the conservation of mass, momentum, and
energy of the fluid.

Definition of fluid moments

Define the 0th; 1st; 2nd moment of the integral over the distribution function fs as
mass density ρs; fluid bulk velocity vs; and pressure tensor πs
     1  3   
 s (t , x )  ms  d f s (t , x, )    , )
3
us ( t , x ) d f s ( t , x
 ns  
          
P (t , x )  p(t , x ) I   s (t , x )  ms  d  (  us )(  us ) f s (t , x, )
3

3 
2
    
qs ( t , x )  m s  d  f s ( t , x , )
 2
All integrals are finite because the distribution function must fall off sufficiently
rapidly with speed so that these low order, physical moments (such as the energy in
the species) are finite. That is, we cannot have large numbers of particles at
arbitrarily high energy because the energy in the species would be unrealistically 36
large or divergent.
Macroscopic quantities from fluid moment

Number density ns ( t , x )   s ms

Charge density  c , s ( t , x )  q s ns
  
Momentum density Ps (t , x)   s us
  
Current density j s ( t , x )  q u
s s
 
Scalar pressure ps (t , x )  Tr( Ps )
 
Temperature Ts ( t , x )  Tr ( s ) ns
 
Heat flux qs ( t , x )

Basic procedure to derive moment equations

Starting from Boltzmann (or Vlasov) equation and taking its nth moment (1; msv;
msv2/2; …) by integrating over velocity space

Calculating all integrations:

  n  f s  f s q  1   f s  
3  n  f s 
                37
3
d  t ( E B )  d
 x m c    
 t  c
0th moment equation— continuity equation

Considering the integration of distribution function over whole velocity space is the
density, we integrate Boltzmann equation over velocity space (0 th moment)

  f s  f s q  1   f s  
3  f s 
  t
        
   
  
3
d ( E B ) d
x m c  t  c

Performing the integrations as follows

 f s   3 n

d 3   d f s  s
t t   t

3  f s 3    3  
   ns 
   
  
x 
                     
3
d  d f s d f s ( ) f s d f s u


 d F
 f s

3



  
 d 3



 

F f s  
  


  F  f s   

d 2
 F f i 
i s  i    
Fi

fs  0
  i  x , y ,z

i  x , y ,z i

Fi
Here, we have used f s     0 for distributi on function;  0 for Lorentz force.
i
 i 38
0th moment equation— continuity equation (cont.)
The right side becomes a source term Q n of particle number density due to collision,
such as the production or annihilation of mass through ionization or recombination.
ns 
   uns   Qn
t

By using full derivative, we have

dns  d  
 ns  u  Qn with   u
dt dt t


For incompressible fluid,   u  0

Continuity equations for charge or mass densities can be obtained by multiplying

number density equation by qs or ms, respectively.

39
1st moment equation— equation of motion
   f s  f s q  1   f s    f s 
             
  
s  
3 3
d m s   ( E B ) d m
  t x m c    t c

Performing the integrations by parts and using the properties of distribution

function
 f s  
 s s

   
3
d m n u
t t
s

 
d 3m s  f s   d 3m s   f s 
 
，
 
     
  d 3m s   [(  u)  u][(  u)  u] f s 



    
  d 3m s   (  u)(  u) f s   m s   ( ns uu)



 
   P  m s   ( ns uu )

By using this relation

  1    
  ( E    B )  0  E and B are indendent of  ;
 c 40
     
 and   (  B )  B          B  0
1st moment equation— equation of motion (cont.)
   q s  1   f s     qs    1    
 d m s  m s ( E  c   B )      d m s  m s   ( E  c   B ) f s  
3 3

     qs  1      3  qs  1   
  d m s     ( E    B ) f s    d m s  ( E    B ) f s
3
    m s c     ms c 
    qs  1      1 
   d j d k m s   i  
   ( E    B )  s  s  u  B ) ns
f  q ( E
  sm c   c
j ,k
i  x , y , z

 1 
  q s ( E  u  B ) ns
c
  f s 
      Rs
3
d m
 t  c
s

So, the momentum equation is yielded as

   
ms ns us     P  ms  (ns uu )  ns qs ( E  1 u  B)  R
t c
By using continuity equation, we can get equation of motion
d       1 
ms ns us  ms ns   us   us    P  ns qs ( E  u  B)  R
dt  t  c

If the collisions are frequent enough, the pressure tensor becomes diagonal, or 41
even

isotropic, so   P  p
2nd moment equation— energy equation
 m s 2  f s  f s q  1   f s  
3 m s  f s 
2

 d  2  t    x  m ( E  c   B)      d  2  t c

3

Letting 
 A   d 3Af s


 1 2      1      
Qs  ns ms     K s us  us  Ps  qs qs  ns ms  (  u)  (  u)(  u) 
2 2
1 m 3
K s  m 2  s  w 2  u2  ps  ns ms us
2

2 2 2

 m s 2 f s m s   3      
The first term is
 d  2 t  2 t  d  (  u  u)  (  u  u) f s
3

m  
    
 s  d 3 (  u)  (  u)  u 2 f s
2 t  

m  
    
 s  d 3 (  u)  (  u)  u 2 f s
2 t  

3 42
 p s  ns m s u 2
2
2nd moment equation— energy equation (cont.)
The second term is
3 m s  f s m s  3 
  ms  3 
 
2
2 2   

 d 
2
  
x

2   
d  
x
   f s 
2  
d 
x
   (  u  u) f s


ms  3 
2  
d 
x
 
  2 
( w 

u ) 
f s  w
  
  u


ms  3 
  2     

d    ( uf s  ( w  u)  ( w  u)wf s    
x
  ms  3 2 
x  2 
  
d  uf s  u  P  q s 
2    

  3     
    p s  n s m s u 2  u  u  P  q s 
x  2  

The third term is

 m s 2  qs  1   f s  
3 m s  q s
2
  1   
 d  2  ( E    B)      d      ( E    B ) f s  
3

 ms c   2  ms  c 
3 1
   1     3 1   1  
  d  qs    ( E    B ) f s     d  qs f s ( E    B )   2 
2
 2  c    2 c 
 
zero due to integratio n by parts (  B )   2  0
  43
  q s ns E  u
2nd moment equation— energy equation (cont.)
Finally we can get the energy equation
 3 2  3 2     
 ps  ns m s u    x   ps  ns m s u  u  u  P  qs   qs ns E  u  Qcs
t  2   2  
Qcs indicates the energy exchange through collision. From this equation, you can
derive a temperature equation through p=nT by using the equations of continuity
and motion.

Using continuity equation and momentum equation to remove the term  ( ns m s u 2 ) t ,

1  ps     5
    ( p u)  ( P   )  u     q  Q with  
  1  t x s 

x cs
3

44
Chain of moment equations
Similar way to derive high order equations

3rd moment equation— heat flux equation

4th moment equation
……
To infinite

This procedure shows that low order moment equation includes higher moment,
which is an infinite chain of hierarchy!

This equation chain must be truncated at somewhere and by some way. It is often
made in the second order in many practical cases, either by neglecting the heat flux,
or by using an equation of state instead of the energy equation. Here physical
insight plays a crucial role. The treatment seems become a kind of art!

45
Closure moments
The general procedure to close a hierarchy of fluid moment equations is to derive the
needed closure moments, which are sometimes called constitutive relations, from
integrals of the kinetic distribution function for higher order moments. The
distribution function must be solved from a kinetic equation that takes account of
the evolution of the lower order fluid moments. The resultant kinetic equation and
procedure for determining the distribution function and closure moments are known
as the Chapman-Enskog approach. For situations where collisional effects are
dominant, the resultant kinetic equation can be solved asymptotically via an
ordering scheme and the closure moments. This approach has been developed in
detail for a collisional, magnetized plasma by Braginskii.

For 3-moment fluid equations, in a Coulomb-collision-dominated plasma, the heat

flux induced by a temperature gradient is usually determined by the microscopic
collisional diffusion process 
q   nT
In magnetized plasmas, the heat diffusion coefficients along perpendicular and
parallel directions are very different, so it is separated as
q   n   T and q//   n // //T with     //

Chapman and Cowling, The Mathematical Theory of Non-Uniform Gases (1952).

S.I. Braginskii, Transport Processes in a Plasma, in Reviews of Plasma Physics, M.A. Leontovich,46Ed.
(Consultants Bureau, New York, 1965), Vol. 1, p. 205.
Summary of moment equations
Continuity equation ns 
   uns   Qn
t
d       1 
Equation of motion ms ns us  ms ns   us   us    P  ns qs ( E  u  B)  Rcs
dt  t  c
Energy equation  3 2  3 2     
 ps  ns m s u    x   ps  ns m s u  u  u  P  qs   qs ns E  u  Qcs

t  2   2  
To the third moment, we have an unknown quantity, heat flux, which is the fourth
order moment.
3 
2
    
qs ( t , x )  m s  d  f s ( t , x , ) → closure approximation
 2
In deriving these equations, we have ignored the details of treating with collision,
which is important in plasma as a fluid. Fluid theory is valid when the phenomena
of interest vary on a hydrodynamics scale length much larger than the fluid
element: LH >> dr. i.e., slow variation of plasma phenomena.

In the limits of high density and lower temperature, the collision is high, the fluid
theory is valid. But, a plasma is often described as a fluid even when it is far from
being collision dominated !!! This condition means that the effects of collisions is
negligible compared with the coherence produced by the self-consistent fields. 47
Why kinetic? Why fluid?
Plasma fluid theory is relatively simple and fluid quantities are measurable
experimentally. Plasma fluid theory can describe most of basic plasma phenomena.
For example, drift waves; cold plasma waves; MHD fluctuations; …...

The advantage of fluid theory lies in the fact that the dynamics of neutral fluid has
been extensively studied and many aspects of their behaviors are well understood.
Although the motion of plasma fluid is much more complex than that in the neutral
fluid, it is often useful to be able to draw analogies with the behavior of a plasma.
From the viewpoint of calculation (simulation), fluid codes require relatively less
CPU time compared to kinetic simulation (PIC or Vlasov codes).

Kinetic description is essentially necessary for some plasma phenomena typically

such as Landau damping process. For example, dispersion relation of two-stream
instability,
e 2   d x f 0 i  f 0  
0
1 P   
m s 0 k      k x  x k   x   k 
 x 
with f 0  n1 (  u1 )  n2 (  u2 )

For the first principal simulation, kinetic (or reduced kinetic) theory should be
48
employed.
Fluid/kinetic hybrid model – a mixed description
D Winske, Space Science Review 42, 53-65 (1985);
Computer space plasma physics (book) (1993)

Plasma phenomena are characterized by a multiple space and time scales, primarily
due to the different responses of electrons and ions to electric and magnetic fields.

Generally speaking, the fast varying and small scale physics phenomena require
kinetic descriptions, slow varying and large scale processes can be described by
more fluid models.

Some particularly interested processes occur on some of these scales but other
processes occur usually. This can be described by a mixed kinetic/fluid model.

Hybrid model describes this plasma system by using kinetic model for one species
(or part of one species) and by using fluid model for the rest.

The hybrid codes are defined as those numerical algorithms in which PIC particle or
Vlasov codes are applied for the species treated by kinetic description and fluid code
is for the species treated as a fluid.

49
Examples of fluid/kinetic hybrid model

Various types of hybrid codes depend on the problems. Some examples:

1. The interaction of a small, cold electron beam (kinetic) with a hot background
electron population (fluid) because the unstable waves generated by the presence
of the beam strongly affect it. (O'Neil et al., 1971)

2. Fast ions or electrons (kinetic) and background plasmas in magnetic fusion

plasmas with various heatings or energetic Alpha particles.

3. Foreshock: it is characterized by particles (kinetic) that are leaked or reflected

from the shock which stream back into the solar wind.

4. ……

50
Example for equations of hybrid model
As an example in the case with kinetic ions and fluid electrons, we have equations

Maxwell equations for electric and magnetic fields


  1 B
  E  4  ;  E      qi ni  qe ne
c t
   
  4  1 E  
  B  0;   B  J J  J i  J e  q u
i i  q u
e e
c c t
Kinetic ion equations
f i  f i q  1   f s  f s 
     ( E    B)     
t x m c   t  c
   Particle PIC code or Vlasov
 i ( x, t )  qi  f i ( x, , t )d 3
       code for simulation
J i ( x, t )  qi ui ( x, t )  qi  f i ( x, , t )d 3
Fluid electron equations
ne 
   une   Qn
t   1 
d    
me ne ue  me ne   ue   ue    P  ne qe ( E  u  B )  Rce Fluid code
dt  t  c
51
This fluid equation chains should be truncated properly.
Gyrofluid model – an approximately mixed description
Gyrofluid model is one kind of fluid model which includes some kinetic effects such
as more accurate Larmor radius effects and Landau damping effects. This model
uses a cleaver closure of the fluid moments of the gyro-kinetic equations that gave
an excellent approximation to the kinetic effect of both Landau damping and finite
Larmor radius. The case with ignoring Larmor radius effect is called as Landau
fluid model.

One obtains a hierarchy of evolution equations for gyrocenter-fluid moments, i.e., for
density, parallel velocity, pressure, etc. To obtain a closed set of these gyrofluid
equations, one needs to invoke a closure approximation i.e., expressions for higher-
order fluid moments in terms of lower-order fluid moments.

In the simulation community, the so-called Landau-closure approach that places

emphasis on accurate linear Landau damping and the linear growth rate has been
most widely adopted. In this approach, some kinetic effects such as linear Landau
damping and a limited form of nonlinear Landau damping have been successfully
incorporated in gyrofluid models.

To date, gyrofluid model still loses to involve properly some important physics
processes. For example, it cannot describe the zonal-flow damping accurately and
52
may overestimate the turbulence level in fusion plasmas.
Example for deriving a set of gyrofluid equations
Hammett & Perkins, PRL 1990

Basic steps to get a Landau-fluid equation:

1. Deriving a set of fluid moment equations from 1D Vlasov equation
n
   un  0
t
f f q f s   p S
z  E 0 ( mnu )  ( umnu )    qnE 
t z m  t z z z
p  u q
 ( up)  (  1)( p  S ) 
t z z z

High order quantity: Heat flux q;

Two introduced undetermined quantities: dissipative momentum flux S;
adjustable ratio of specific heats Г

2. Calculating linear response for electrostatic fluctuation from Vlasov equation

~ ~
~ q q f 0 

~  df   n    t  
2
n R( ) k d
k  
0
T0 T0
For fluctuation with form ~ exp(ikz  it )
~
Here f  f 0 ( )  f (t , z , ) E    z 53
Example for deriving a set of gyrofluid equations ( cont.)
3. Expressing undetermined quantities q and S by lower moments
T u
q   n S  mn 
z z
4. Calculating the linear response R3 from the fluid equations with free constants
χ,μ,Г
R3  R3 ( ,  ; ;  )
5. Comparing the linear response functions from kinetic and fluid equations through
asymptotic analysis, choosing the free parameters with the most approximate
results. In some case, the higher moment equations are required for more accurate
results.

Normalized response functions from

exact kinetic model (solid); 3-moment
(dashed) and 4-moment Landau fluid
models.

Hammett & Perkins, PRL 1990

The calculation to get a satisfactory gyrofluid model (finite Larmor radius effects
and Landau damping) is much more complicated, sometimes up to 6- or 8-moment 54
equations.
Simplified two-fluid equations
We have derived fluid moment equations for each species. In the case without
ionization and energy exchange collisions, it can be written down a set of simplified
two-fluid equations for ions and electrons.
ni 
   ni ui   Qni
t
     1 
(mi ni ui )    Pi    (mi ni ui ui )  qi ni ( E  ui  B)  Ri
t c
1  pi     
   ( p u )   ( P   )  u    q Q
  1  t i i 

x i i x i ci

ne 
   ne ue   Qne
t
      1 
(me ne ue )    Pe    (me ne ue ue )  qe ne ( E  ue  B)  Re
t c
1  pe     
   ( p u )   ( P   )  u    q Q
  1  t e e 

x e e x e ce

     
With friction term Re   ei me ne (ui  ue ) Re  Ri  0 Qci  Qce  (ui  ue )  Re  5 3
In some cases, it is also assumed that the pressure is scalar. The heat conduction
term is neglected.
The separate two (ions and electrons) fluids interact through collisions and 55
through electromagnetic interaction.
Two-fluid equilibrium –
diamagnetic drift and diamagnetic current
At equilibrium, we have  t  0 and collisionless limit  ei  0

In slab geometry with straight B-field B  Bẑ , assuming equilibrium fields and
profile vary only in x, the momentum equation is.
    
ps  ms ns  (us us )  qs ns ( E  us  B)  0
From the equation in y direction, we have usx  0 is a solution, we can have the
equilibrium equation
d qs ns  1  dp
ms ns usx usy  Busx q n
s s  E x  usy  
B 0
dx c  c  dx
d 1 dp E 1 dp
ms ns usx usx  qs ns ( E x  usy B)  usy   x 
dx c dx B q n B dx s s
  
 cE  B cB  p
Fluid drifts: uD  2
 Second term is diamagnetic drift
B qs ns B 2

Diamagnetic current:    
   cE  B cB   ( pi  pe ) cB   ( pi  pe )
j  qi ni ui  qe ne ue  ( q n
i i  q n
e e )  
B2 B2 B2 56
Quasi-neutrality diamagnetic current
Single fluid model
Two fluid equations contain still considerable complexity which is not needed for
many plasma systems. It is desirable to formulate a more appropriate set of
equations which include most of the macroscopic properties of a plasma. This set of
equations are so-called magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) equations. This model
consists of a one-fluid model for the plasma and the Maxwell equations for the
electromagnetic fields.

In a charge neutral plasma, qi=-qe=e, define the following quantities for single fluid
model
Mass density:  m  ni mi  ne me
  
Mass flux velocity: u  ( ni m i ui  ne me ue ) /  m
    
Total current density: j  qi ni ui  qe ne ue  qe ne ( ue  ui )
Total pressure: p  pi  pe

It can be seen that  

  m j    j
ui  u  e u ue  u 
m i ne qe ne qe
57
Single fluid model – mass density equation
Multiply the electron and ion density equations by their respective masses and
combine together to get a single fluid mass density (continuity) equation
 
 m    (  m u)  0
t
Similarly, multiply the density equations by their respective charges and combine to
yield the single fluid charge continuity equation.
  
 q    j  0    j  0
quasi  neutrality

t

MHD plasmas are quasineutral and have no net charge density, we can  not calculate
the electric field from the Gauss' law Maxwell equation   E  .qHowever,
i ni  qe ne
since a plasma is a highly polarizable medium, the electric field E in MHD can be
determined self-consistently from Ohm's law, Ampere's law and the charge
continuity equation.

58
Single fluid model – equation of single fluid motion
Adding the electron and ion momentum equations to derive a one-fluid momentum
equation (equation of motion) for a plasma
         1   
(mi ni ui  me ne ue )    ( Pi  Pe )    (mi ni ui ui  me ne ue ue )  (qi ni  qe ne ) E  (qi ni ui  qe ne ue )  B  0
t   c  
     m e j   m e j   j   j 
mi ni ui ui  me ne ue ue  mi ni  u   u 

  me ne  u 
 
 u 



 m i n e e 
q m i n e e 
q  n e e 
q ne e 
q
  me    me2  me    me 
 ( mi ni  me ne )uu  ( j u  uj )  jj  ( j u  uj )  jj
qe mi ne qe2 qe ne qe2

 m    m m jj
 ( mi ni  me ne )uu  e 2 j j  ( mi ni  me ne )uu  i 2 e
ne qe qe  m

 
 m u   m i me  jj   1 

   (  m uu )  2        p  j  B

t qe  m  c

Using density equation and quasi-neutrality   j  0

    1   
 m   u   u  j  B    p
 t
59
 c
Single fluid model – generalized Ohm’s law
Multiplying the equation of ion or electron motion by qi/mi or qe/me and sum them,
we can get generalized Ohm’s law.
    qi  qe     
(qi ni ui  qe ne ue )     Pi  Pe     (qi ni ui ui  qe ne ue ue )
t  mi me 
 qi2 ni qe2 ne    qi2 ni  qe2 ne    qi q
    E   ui  ue   B  Ri  e Re
 mi me   mi c me c  mi me
 
j     j j  qe2 ne   1    qe  1    qe me  
    uj  j u  
  E  u B   pe  j  B    ei  1   j
t  qe ne  me  c  me  c   qi m i 
 
me mi j     j j     1    mi  1   me ei  
     uj  j u     E  u  B  
  pe  j  B    2 j  j
qe  m  t
2
 qe ne   c  qe  m  c  qe ne

Generalized Ohm’s law

 

me mi j     j j     1    mi  1   
     uj  j u     E  u  B  
   pe  j  B   j
qe  m  t
2
 qe e 
n  c  e m
q  c 
Hall
Electron inertia Pressure
term
term→0 force<<1 60
<<1
Single fluid model – generalized Ohm’s law (cont.)
In generalized Ohm’s law, the term proportional to m e/mi should be small, the
second order term is usually neglected. For slow temporal and large spatial scales,
ignoring the electron inertia, hall effect and pressure, simplified Ohm’s law
 1  
E  u  B  j
c
Some microscopic mechanisms, which are not due to actual inter-particle collisions,
may lead to effective resistivity or viscosity at the macroscopic level. Various wave-
particle interactions and microscopic instabilities tend to inhibit the current flow.
The macroscopic effect of these processes looks analogous large and it is called
anomalous resistivity.

If the resistivity is small, we can get ideal Ohm’s law

 1 
E  u B  0
c
In many space plasmas, the Hall term and the pressure term become more
important, namely, the Hall MHD.

61
Single fluid model – pressure equation (or state equation)
Add ion and electron pressure equation, we have
1  p       
    ( p u  p u )   p   u  p   u     (q  q )  Q  Q
  1  t x i i e e 

i i e e x i e ci ce

1  p    
    ( pu)   p  u     (q  q )  j
2

  1  t x  x i e


Like the two-fluid equations, the pressure equation depends on next order fluid
moment. We can not obtain a closed set of MHD equations without some further
approximations. One approximate treatment is to roughly drop out the next order
term
1  p  
    ( pu)   p  u  j
2

  1  t x 

The chain is also often cut by employing an equation of state under an adiabatic
process.
p  C m

In a 3-dimensional plasma, the specific heat ratio γ=5/3; for an isothermal process,
γ=1; In the case with constant pressure, γ=0; for an isometric process, γ→∞, i.e.
p→0 in a very low β plasma.
62
MHD equations
These MHD equations can describes many
  physical processes in small gyroradius,
 m    (  m u)  0 magnetized plasmas — macroscopic plasma
t
equilibrium and instabilities, Alfven waves,
    1   magnetic field diffusion. It is the simplest,
 m   u   u  j  B  p
 t  c lowest order model used in analyzing
magnetized plasmas.
 1  
E  u  B  j
c
Used approximations used in MHD equations:
1  p   1. Exclude single particle effects such as gyro
    ( pu)   p  u  j
2

  1  t x 
 motion;
 2. Exact charge neutrality for low frequency
1 B  phenomena much smaller than plasma
   E frequency;
c t
3. The displacement current has been
 4  neglected due to the slow propagation of
 B  j
c electromagnetic waves;
 4. Assuming isotropic pressure near thermal
 B  0 equilibrium;
5. Different approximation can be taken in
generalized Ohm’s law. 63
Properties of MHD equations
1. Conservation laws of ideal MHD system mass; momentum and energy
 
 m    (  m u)  0
t
     2
 1     
 m u    (  m uu)   p  B  I  BB   0   m u    T  0
1
t   8  4  t
MHD stress tensor
Reynold Isotopic Expansion and tension of
stress pressure magnetic field

  m u 2 
   m u2

t  2

p

cB 2 
  1 8 
     

 1
 c  
p  u 
4

EB 0
 2  
 
MHD energy density MHD energy flux w  S  0
t
Kinetic Internal Magnetic Kinetic Internal electromagnetic field
energy energy energy energy energy energy flux
flux flux
From energy conservation, it can be seen that in an isolated system, total energy is
constant while exchange between kinetic; internal and magnetic energy
3  m u cB 2 
2
p (Using Gauss’ theorem)
V d x 2    1  8   Wk  W p  WB  constant
64
Properties of MHD equations (cont.) –
Details of deriving conservation laws
In deriving MHD momentum conservation, we used
  
 c    B 2 
 
         c  
(a  b )  a  (  b )  (a   )b  b  (  a )  (b   )a  jB   B  B   BB  
4 4  2 
In deriving MHD energy conservation, we used
            
B  ( u  B )   B  E  E  B;   (a  b )  b  (  a )  a  (  b )
      B 2   
u  (   B )  B   (  B )  ( u  B )      [ B  ( u  B )]
2t
From momentum equation,
       1   
 m u  u   m u  (u  u)  u  (  B)  B  u  p
t 4
  m u  u
2 2
    c B 2 1    
     (  m u)   m u  (u  u)      [ B  (u  B)]  u  p
t  2  2 8 t 4

   m u2 cB 2    m u2 u  1    
           [ B  ( u  B )]  u  p
t  2 8   2  4
 
Adding this equation with the energy equation,

   m u2 cB 2 p  1     m u2 u  1    
        ( pu)  p  u         [ B  ( u  B )]  u  p
t  2 8   1   1  2  4

   m u2 cB 2 p      m u2 u  c  
     
  ( pu)     
  4   ( E  B)
8   1 
65
t  2  1  2 
Properties of MHD equations (cont.)
2. Ideal MHD frozen flux theorem
  
In an ideal MHD, since the resistivity disappears, E  u  B c  0 , it can be proved
that the magnetic flux Φ through every surface moving with the plasma is constant,
i.e. d d       
dt dt S
 B  dS   B  dS   B    dsˆ  0
S t C

In ideal MHD, plasma carries the magnetic field to move, namely, it always contain
the same amount of magnetic flux. We may simply understand “MHD frozen flux” as
that two fluid elements are always connected by a magnetic field line if they were
connected at one time by a field line, which is defined by the direction of the
magnetic field at any moment in time. In other word, fluid elements flow freely
along the line of magnetic force.
3. Magnetic diffusion 
When the fluid velocity is zero, from Ohm’s law we have B t  4  2 B
The magnetic field changes by diffusing through the electrically conducting fluid,
the change rate depends on the plasma characteristics. The field decays in a
characteristic time  ~ L2 4  with magnetic gradient length L.
4. Entropy conservation
The entropy is defined as s  ln( p m ) , the overall entropy production rate is
d
  p m  
ds d dp        
  m    u    p     u     m    u    u  0 66
dt dt dt dt  t   t 
MHD equilibrium
In a plasma equilibrium, ∂/∂t ~ 0, u=0, MHD equations consist of force balance and
Maxwell equations
1   4  
j  B  p  B  j  B  0
c c
Taking the scalar product of the force equilibrium equation with B and j, we have
 
B  p  j  p  0
It indicates the pressure is constant on magnetic field lines and on current lines.

The force equilibrium equation can be written as

 
1  1    B 2  B  B
p  j  B  p  (  B)  B   p    0
c 4  8  4
 B2  p
For the case without field curvature    p    0 
 8  B 2 8
Plasma Magnetic
internal energy
energy

We can get many different equilibrium configurations in magnetic fusion:

67
Tokamak, stellarator (helical system), Mirror; Θ-pinch, Z-pinch, …..
Reduced MHD equations H R strauss, Phys. Fluids 19, 134(1976)
R. Fitzpatrick, Phys. Plasmas 11, 937(2003)

In space plasmas and also in magnetic fusion plasmas, MHD can be reduced further.

Including the effects of electron viscosity, the equation of motion and Ohm’s law
become   
u   1 2
m   m u  u  p  j  B   u
t c
 1   mi  1   
E  u  B  j   pe  j  B    j
2

c qe  m  c 

Define Ψ is parallel vector potential; stream function Φ, let ∂/∂z=0, and constant
density, we can write
 
B    zˆ  Bz zˆ; u    zˆ  uz zˆ; Ez    t

uz 1
zˆ  (equation of motion ) m   m [ , uz ]  [ Bz , ]   2 uz
t 4

 z 1
  [ zˆ  (equation of motion )] m  [ ,  z ]  [ jz , ]   2 z
t c 68
Reduced MHD equations (cont.) – two-field MHD

zˆ  (Ohm' s law )  mi
 [ , ]  [ , Bz ]   2   4
t 4qe  m

zˆ  [  (Ohm' s law )] Bz mi c 2 2 c 2 4

 [ , Bz ]  [uz , ]  [ , jz ]   Bz   Bz
t qe  m 4 4

Here we defined jz  2 ;  z  2 ; [a , b]  a  b  zˆ

When the parallel magnetic field is very strong, the perpendicular gradient is small,
we get reduced two-field MHD equations

 z 1
m  [ ,  z ]  [ jz , ]   2 z
t c

 [ , ]   2   4
t
These equations are usually used to study the tearing mode and the magnetic
reconnection in space plasmas and magnetic fusion plasmas. 69
Classification of equations (Elliptic type—Poisson)
We will summarize
 typical equations. From Maxwell equation, in electrostatic limit
we can define E   , so the Gauss’ law become Poisson equation
Perpendicular to  2  2
   4 
2
  2  4 
magnetic field x 2
y
This is an Elliptic-type equation
 2  2
 2 0
x 2
y
In plasma physics, it is often to calculate Poisson equation to solve electric field. It
has been paid much attention to look for good Poisson solver in simulation.

70
Classification of equations (hyperbolic type—wave; convection)
Sometimes E & B are expressed in terms of an electric potential φ and vector
potential A:    
E ( r , t )   ( r , t )  A( r , t ) B( r , t )    A( r , t )
ct
In this case, Maxwell equation can written as electromagnetic field equations are
written in the form 
1  2 1 2A  4 
  2
  4 ( r , t )  A
2
J (r , t )
c t 2
c t 2
c
1  
With Lorentz gauge  A  0
c t
It can be clearly seen that they are hyperbolic-type equation (for example 1D case)
 2u  2u
 2 0
t 2
x
Furthermore, the fluid equation system is typical hyperbolic and the equation is of
convection equation  m  u u p
u m 0 m  mu 
t x t x x
The solution of such convection problem is the propagation of initial profile F(0,x).
71
f ( t , x )  F ( x  ut )
Classification of equations (parabolic type— diffusion)
Another common equation describes diffusion process such heat diffusion, magnetic
diffusion in MHD. For the latter, when the velocity of fluid is zero, the Ohm’s law
becomes  
B 2
 B
 4  2
t x
This is of Parabolic type such as
T  2T
 2
t x
In the energy equation in fluid equations, assuming density is constant and using

p=nT, further assuming heat flux q   T, hence, we have
1  p    T T  2T
     ( pu)   p  u    q  j

2
u   2  ......
  1  t x
 t x x
When fluid velocity is zero, it is a diffusion (transport) problem
T  2T
  2  ......
t x
When heat is isolated, it mainly describes a convection process
T T
u  ......
t x
In general case, it describes the mixed processes of diffusion and convection. 72
Final remarks T. Tajima, computational plasma physics, Chpt. 5

All physics system is described by equations. In magnetized plasmas, the equations

are of linear second order partial difference equation in two independent variables x
and y (perpendicular to magnetic field). These equations may be written as a most
general form  2u  2u  2u u u
A B C D E  Fu  G  0
x 2
xy y 2
x y
Here the coefficients are assumed as constant. In the simplest case with D=E=F=G
=0, define characteristic curves
  x  y;   x  y
We have characteristic value condition
A  B  C 2  0; A  B  C 2  0
Through some transformations, the second order partial difference equation can be
classified as
" elliptice type" when B  4 AC  0
2

" parabolic type" when B 2  4 AC  0

" hyperbolic type" when B 2  4 AC  0
Most equations in plasmas are of mixing type depending on the physics processes
such as propagation; dissipation. We will introduce numerical methods to solve such
equations involving time advance and spatial discretization.
73