227-6b-Thermal Processing of Metals

VIb.
Thermal Processing of Metals
Phase Transformations
1
 The development of desirable properties in materials generally

results from a phase transformation. The phase transformations can
be controlled by heat treatment.
 For example, the UTS of a 0,4%C steel can be varied between
300MPa – 1800 MPa, depending on the type of the heat treatment
applied.
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Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 2
 The formation of microstructure in a metal or ceramic depends on two

variables:
 Thermodynamics
 Kinetics
 Thermodynamics tells us that the phase transformation is stable and
will occur.
 Kinetics tells us when it will occur?
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Fig.6.1. Schematic plot of nucleation (N) and growth rate (G) with
temperature. Overall Transformation Rate (N+G) is also included.
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Isothermal Transformation Diagrams (TTT)
 The austenite will transform to pearlite only if the alloy is

supercoooled below eutectoid.
 Such a TTT diagram is given in Fig.6.2. for the 0.8%C steel.
 The most left C-curve defines the start of pearlite transformation and
the most right one is the end of transformation.
 Therefore, the TTT diagrams tells us WHEN the transformation will
start and will be completed.
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Fig.6.2. The TTT curve of 0.8%C steel. Transformation at two different

temperatures, i.e. 650C and 550C are pointed on the graph
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Transformation of 0.8%C Steel
 Lets cool a specimen to 650C and wait at that temp:

 The first pearlite colonies are seen at around 8 secs (point A in Fig.6.2.)
 The amount of pearlite will increase by time and 100% transformation is
complete within 110 secs (point B).
 The dashed C-curve between two curves is the 50% transformation
curve.
 If the specimen is cooled to a lower temperature? The
transformation will take place at a different time interval.
 An example is given for the specimen cooled to 550C in Fig.6.2. At
that temp. the transformation started earlier (point C) and finished at an
earlier temperature (point D).
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 The microstructure of the steel will be different if transformation is

carried out at different temperatures. This is due to precipitation
kinetics.
Coarse Pearlite:
 If the thickness ratio between ferrite and cementite layers is high, i.e.
the layers are thick, we call this type of pearlite as COARSE
Pearlite. In Fig.6.3. the specimen cooled isothermally at 650C
yielded coarse pearlite.
Fine Pearlite:
 If the thickness ratio is low, it is called FINE Pearlite. In Fig.6.3., the
specimen cooled isothermally at 550C yielded fine pearlite.
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Pearlite
Fig.6.3. Coarse and fine pearlite in eutectoid steel. The lamellar

spacing is related to transformation temperature.
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Fig.6.4. The TTT curve of a 0.4%C steel. Above pearlitic

transformation curve, there is a region for + phases.
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Continuous Cooling Diagrams
 Assume that we take out a specimen from the furnace at 900C and
cooled in air: This is a continuous cooling. We cannot use TTT
diagrams!
 For this type of cooling we have to use continuous cooling diagrams
(CCT Diagrams) instead of TTT diagrams.
 However, TTT and CCT diagrams are very similar.
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 Fig.6.5. Comparison of TTT (isothermal) and continuous cooling
diagrams of a eutectoid steel.
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 Fig.6.7. Continuous cooling diagram with different cooling rates are
superimposed on the diagram. (Schematic view)
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 Fig.6.8. Formation of different phases at different cooling rates.
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 Fig.6.9. Cooling rates and continuous cooling diagram relation.
(Schematic view).
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MARTENSITE:
 If the specimen is cooled very fast, i.e. it does not cross the nose of
the TTT, an acicular new phase is formed: MARTENSITE.
 Martensite is a BCT crystal structure . The carbon is in solid
solution.
 Martensite is a very hard and brittle phase.
 It is a diffusionless process. The amount martensite formation

depends on the temperature cooled.
 Ms is the start of martensitic transformation (Fig.6.4, 6.5, 6.6 etc.)
 Mf is the end of martensitic transf., i.e., 100%Martensite is formed.

(Fig.6.4, 6.5, 6.6 etc.)
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The Phases in Steels That Appear Upon Fast
Cooling
 The hardness of the martensite is related to its supersaturated
carbon in solid solution.
 The relation between the carbon percentage and hardness of
martensite is given in Fig.6.10. A high carbon steel has also higher
hardness after quenching.
 Being an unstable phase, martensite does not appear in Fe-C
equilibrium phase diagram, but seen in TTT and CT diagram.
 In quenched condition MARTENSITE is very BRITTLE. It must be
tempered.
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Fig.6.10. The relation between the carbon percentage and hardness of
Martensite.
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Heat Treatment of Steels
ANNEALING
 After heating to 100% austenite region, if the steel is cooled in
furnace very slowly, equilibrium condiions are satisfied and coarse
pearlite is obtained.
 The softest possible condition of a steel is in Annealed condition
 If there is an extensive machining, annealed steels are preferred.
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NORMALIZING
 After an austenitization treatment, if steel is cooled in AIR, we call
this treatment as NORMALIZING.
 Due to the conductivity of air, a faster cooling is achieved in air.
 The pearlite is in the form of FINE PEARLITE.
 Also primary ferrite grains become more acicular.
 As a result the strength and toughness of the steels increase with

respect to annealed steels.
 All the hot rolled steels are cooled in air. Therefore, their mechanical
propertis are higher than annealed steels.
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QUENCHING
 After an austenitization treatment, if the steel is rapidly cooled to
room temperature, it is called quenching.
 Quenching can be carried out in Water, Brine (water+salt) or Oil.
 The aim of quenching is to form 100% Martensite.
 Martensite is a very hard but brittle phase. Therefore it must be

TEMPERED
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TEMPERING
 After a quenching operation, the steel is put in a furnace and
tempered in a range 180C-550C, depending on the application
type.
 During tempering, the hardness, tensile and yield strength of the
steel decreases but % elongation increases.
 The relation between tempering temperature and various
mechanical properties are given in Fig.6.11, for AISI 1050, a plain
carbon steel having 0,5%C.
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Fig.6.11. The effect of tempering temperature on mechanical
properties of AISI 1050 steel.
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TEMPERING (cont.)
 For applications, where wear resistance, i.e. hardness is required a
low tempering temperature is selected. Such a tempering operation
is carried out at around 180C-220C
 On the other hand, if toughness is most important property for the
application, a higher tempering temperature is selected. Such a
tempering operation is carried out at around 400C-600C.
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TEMPERING (cont.)
 A tempering temperature in the range 300C-400C is never
selected due to Temper Embrittlement problem. In this range,
although the hardness decrease, toughness does not increase due
to temper embrittlement. (Fig.6.12.)
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Fig.6.12. Notch toughness as a function of tempering in
AISI 4140 steel
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Hardness and Hardenability of Steels
 Therefore, a Q&T operation inceases the strength of steels to very
high values.
 Moreover, the toughness of steels become very high upon Q&T.
 The main aim in quenching is to obtain 100% martensite. Otherwise
the hardnesses attained will be lower than the expected.
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Hardenability
 As seen above pages, the nose of the CT must not be crossed, in
order to obtain 100% Martensite.
 However, for large parts, such a fast cooling may not be possible.
 Also, a fast quenching in water may cause quench cracks.
 Then what we have to do?
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Hardenability (cont.)
 Lets assume that we quenched a cylindrical steel part:
 The heat transfer will be from the surface. The inner sections will
cool down due to conductivity. Therefore, the cooling rates at
different locations from the surface will be different and shown in
Fig.6.13
 These cooling rates will affect the phase transformation, which will
yield a hardness distribution as shown in Fig.6.13
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Fig.6.13. The cooling rate at different locations from the surface in
a cylindrical specimen.
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 Several alloying elements effect the transformation behaviour of
steels. Addition of alloying elements shift the TTT diagram to the
right. So transformation of austenite is delayed.
 These alloying elements are:
 C, Mn, Cr, Mo, W, V (in the order of shifting power)
 The effect of chromium is shown schematically in Fig.2.14. The
addition of the Cr shifted the CT curve to the right
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Fig.6.14. The effect of alloying elements on CT diagram of

eutectoid steel. The same cooling curve was superimposed on
each diagram.
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 As a result, with the addition of alloying elements, there will be
enough time for martensite formation
 For large sections, cracking upon quenching will be minimized if the
part is made of alloy steel. For example, instead of water quenching,
oil quenching will be enough to obtain 100% martensite.
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 Definition for HARDENABILITY: Hardenability gives, the depth at

which martensite could be obtained.
 In other words, it is the penetration of hardness.
 The higher the alloying elements, the higher will be the hardenability.
 The HARDNESS and HARDENABILITY must not be confused.
Hardness of the martensite is related to carbon content. However,
the hardenability depends on the alloying element content.
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 The hardenability curves for four different steels all having 0.45%C
is given in Fig.6.15. All have nearly same hardness at the surface.
 However, the depth of penetration is different. For the plain carbon
steel AISI 1045, the hardness drop immediately after a relatively
short distance from the quenched end.
 On the other hand, for alloy steels the decrease in hardness is more
gradual.
 It can be stated that the hardenability of AISI 4145 is highest.
 1045 (0.45%C)
 4145 (0.45%C+1.00%Cr+0.25%Mo)
 8620 (0.20%C+0.55%Ni+0.25%Cr+0.25%Mo)
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 Different steel bars with either 80mm or 50mm diameter are
quenched (Fig.6.16)
 At 50mm diameter, steel 4145 was hardened throughout the cross-
section. However, for the plain carbon steel 1045, the core remained
soft, because martensitic transformation could not be achieved.
 Steel 8620, although has high hardenability, it has low hardness
value throughout the section (Fig.6.17). This is due to that the 8620
steel has a lower carbon content.
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Fig.6.15. The cross-sectional hardness profiles of several steels with
different hardenability. Comparison in 80mm and 50mm diameter.
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Several AISI Grade steels and their composition
 1045 (0.45%C)
 4145 (0.45%C+1.00%Cr+0.25%Mo)
 8620 (0.20%C+0.55%Ni+0.25%Cr+0.25%Mo)
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39
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel
Age Hardening of Aluminum Alloys
 Several aluminum alloys are AGE HARDENABLE (2xxx, 6xxx, 7xxx
series)
 2xxx >> Al-Cu-Mg alloys
 6xxx >> Al-Mg-Si alloys
 7xxx >> Al-Zn-Cu alloys
 The strength of these alloys can be increased by a heat treatment,
called age hardening (or precipitation hardening).
 Not only aluminum alloys, but several other alloys like Cu-Be,
Maraging steels, Ni alloys can be also age hardened using similar
heat treatment procedures.
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 The age hardening procedure consists of three steps:
1. Solution Treatment.
2. Quenching.
3. Ageing.
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Solution Treatment:
 At room temperature, an Al-4.5%Cu alloy consists of two phase: 
and CuAl2. CuAl2 is also named as  phase. (Fig.6.16)
 In age hardening procedure, the alloy is first heated to  single
phase region. All the CuAl2 particles dissolve in the matrix. This
yields atomic Cu and enriches the matrix in terms of Cu. This step
is called solution treatment.
 When water quenched, the matrix is frozen and it becomes
supersaturated with respect to Cu.
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Age Hardening (Artificial Ageing)

 When the quenched alloy is heated to a higher temperature; but
within the + two phase region, the Cu atoms precipitate in the
form of very fine particles (’ and ’’).
 These fine particles act as an obstacle to dislocation motion and the
strength of the alloy increase. This process is called as age
hardening.
 The precipitation hardening operation is simulated in Anim.6.1.
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Fig.6.16. The Al-Cu Phase Diagram (Al rich part).

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Anim.6.1. The precipitation hardening of Al-Cu alloys.
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 In 2014 Aluminum Alloy, the effect of ageing temperature and time is

given in Fig.6.17.
 As seen, an ageing treatment at high temperatures yield peak
hardnesses at relatively early stages. However, the reached
hardness values are not as high as the ones obtained at longer
ageing periods.
 The change in both tensile and yield properties upon ageing is seen
in Fig.6.18.
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Fig.6.17. The effect of ageing temperature and time

on strength of 2014 aluminum alloy.
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Fig.6.18. The effect of ageing temperature and time on

UTS and Yield Strength of 2024 aluminum alloy.
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Age Hardening (Natural Ageing)
 Natural ageing is suitable for 2xxx series alloys.
 In natural ageing, the solution treatment is done as usual.
 After water quenching, the Al Alloy is not heated to a high

temperature, but wait at room temperature.
 In the case of 2014, as seen in Fig.6.18, the tensile strength of the
alloy start to increase when waited at room temperature. The tensile
strength reaches its peak within 7 days.
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 Therefore, the alloy 2014 is hardened at room temperature (to a
level) without a heating treatment
 Even cooling to 0C, does not prevent ageing but only cause a
delay.
 In order to prevent natural ageing, the parts must be preserved at -
18C. For example 2xxx rivets are deformed and assembled just
after taken out of the deep freezer. Within 7 days it will be very
difficult to dissassembe. (Fig.6.18)
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 On the other hand, the 7075 alloy is not stable. For natural ageing.
The tensile strength start to increase at room temperature.
However, 7xxx alloys are considerably less stable at room
temperature and continue to exhibit significant changes in
mechanical properties for many years (!) (Fig.6.19)
 Although to a lesser extend, the unstability in natural ageing is also
true for 6xxx series
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Fig.6.19. The effect of natural ageing at room temperature on

tensil strength of 2014 and 7075 Al Alloys.
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Welding of Al Alloys
 Why Al alloys are welded?

 What is the beneficial effect of welding?
 What is the disadvantage of welding of Al alloys
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227-6b-Thermal Processing of Metals

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VIb.

Thermal Processing of Metals

 The development of desirable properties in materials generally

 The formation of microstructure in a metal or ceramic depends on two

 The austenite will transform to pearlite only if the alloy is

Fig.6.2. The TTT curve of 0.8%C steel. Transformation at two different

Transformation of 0.8%C Steel

 Lets cool a specimen to 650C and wait at that temp:

 The microstructure of the steel will be different if transformation is

Fig.6.3. Coarse and fine pearlite in eutectoid steel. The lamellar

Fig.6.4. The TTT curve of a 0.4%C steel. Above pearlitic

 It is a diffusionless process. The amount martensite formation

 Mf is the end of martensitic transf., i.e., 100%Martensite is formed.

 If there is an extensive machining, annealed steels are preferred.

 The pearlite is in the form of FINE PEARLITE.

 Also primary ferrite grains become more acicular.

 As a result the strength and toughness of the steels increase with

 The aim of quenching is to form 100% Martensite.

 Martensite is a very hard but brittle phase. Therefore it must be

Fig.6.14. The effect of alloying elements on CT diagram of

 Definition for HARDENABILITY: Hardenability gives, the depth at

Age Hardening (Artificial Ageing)

Fig.6.16. The Al-Cu Phase Diagram (Al rich part).

Anim.6.1. The precipitation hardening of Al-Cu alloys.

 In 2014 Aluminum Alloy, the effect of ageing temperature and time is

Fig.6.17. The effect of ageing temperature and time

Fig.6.18. The effect of ageing temperature and time on

 In natural ageing, the solution treatment is done as usual.

 After water quenching, the Al Alloy is not heated to a high

Fig.6.19. The effect of natural ageing at room temperature on

 Why Al alloys are welded?

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