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Anabolism
Uses raw materials to synthesize essential
compound
Catabolism
Decomposes substances to provide energy cells
need to function
Catabolic Reactions- Require two essential
ingredients:
1.oxygen
2.organic molecules broken down by intracellular
enzymes:
m carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
Components of
the Digestive System
j ±
j ±
Figure 24²1
Digestive Tract
Gastrointestinal (GI) tract or alimentary
canal
Is a muscular tube
Extends from oral cavity to anus
Passes through:
² pharynx
² esophagus
² stomach
² small intestine
² large intestine
² anus
· Functions of the
Digestive System
1. Ingestion:
² occurs when materials enter digestive tract via
the mouth
2. Mechanical processing:
² crushing and shearing
² makes materials easier to propel along
digestive tract
3. Digestion:
² is the chemical breakdown of food
² into small organic fragments
² for absorption by digestive epithelium
· Functions of the
Digestive System
4. Secretion:
² is the release of water, acids, enzymes, buffers, and
salts
² by epithelium of digestive tract
² by glandular organs
5. Absorption:
² movement of organic substrates, electrolytes, vitamins,
and water
² across digestive epithelium
² into interstitial fluid of digestive tract
·. Excretion:
² removal of waste products from body fluids
ining of the Digestive Tract
Figure 24²2a, b
Mesenteries
Figure 24²2c, d
Mesenteries (1)
Figure 24²3
The Digestive Epithelium
Mucosal epithelium is simple or stratified:
² depending on location, function, and stresses
Oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus:
² mechanical stresses
² lined by stratified squamous epithelium
Stomach, small intestine, and most of large
intestine:
² absorption
² simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells
ining of Digestive Tract
Cycles of contraction:
² Churn and fragment bolus
² mix contents with intestinal secretions
Does not follow a set pattern:
² does not push materials in any 1 direction
The Regulation of
Digestive Activities
A
Figure 24²5
Neural Mechanisms
Control:
² movement of materials along digestive tract
² secretory functions
Motor neurons:
² control smooth muscle contraction and glandular
secretion
Short Reflexes control small segments of
digestive tract
Digestive üormones
At least 18 hormones that affect:
² most aspects of digestive function
² activities of other systems
Are peptides
Are produced by enteroendocrine cells in
digestive tract
Reach target organs after distribution in
bloodstream
ocal Mechanisms
Prostaglandins, histamine, and other
chemicals
Released into interstitial fluid
Affect adjacent cells within small segment
of digestive tract
Coordinating response to changing
conditions:
² m variations in local pü, chemical, or
physical stimuli
Affect only a portion of tract
The Oral Cavity
Figure 24²·
4 Functions of the Oral Cavity
Sensory analysis:
² of material before swallowing
Mechanical processing:
² through actions of teeth, tongue, and palatal
surfaces
ubrication:
² mixing with mucus and salivary gland
secretions
imited digestion:
² of carbohydrates and lipids
Oral Mucosa
ining of oral cavity
üas stratified squamous epithelium
The Mucosa Inferior to the Tongue
Is thin and vascular enough to rapidly
absorb lipid-soluble drugs
Cheeks- Are supported by pads of fat and
the buccinator muscles
ips- labia - the mucosa of each cheek is
continuous with that of the lips
]estibule
Space between the cheeks (or lips) and the
teeth
Gingivae (Gums)
Ridges of oral mucosa
Surround base of each tooth on alveolar
processes of maxillary bones and mandible
The Oral Cavity
Roof formed by hard and soft palates
Tongue dominates the floor
Uvula
A dangling process
üelps prevent food from entering
pharynx prematurely
Is supported by posterior margin of soft
palate
Tonsils
ies between palatoglossal and
palatopharyngeal arches, on each side
The Tongue
Manipulates materials inside mouth
May bring foods into oral cavity
4 Functions of the Tongue
1. Manipulation:
2. Mechanical processing:
² compression, abrasion, and distortion
² assists in chewing
² prepares material for swallowing
4 Functions of the Tongue
3. Sensory analysis:
² touch, temperature, and taste receptors
4. Secretion:
² mucins
² enzyme lingual lipase
ingual Papillae has fine projections on
superior surface (dorsum) of tongue which
are covered in thick epithelium
Sublingual Glands
Figure 24²7
Salivary Glands
3 pairs secrete into oral cavity
Each pair has distinctive cellular
organization:
² and produces saliva with different properties
Produce 1.0²1.5 liters of saliva each day:
² 70% by submandibular glands
² 25% by parotids
² 5% by sublingual glands
Saliva
99.4% water
0.·% includes:
² electrolytes (Na+, Cl³, and üCO3³)
² buffers
² glycoproteins (mucins)- Glycoproteins,
responsible for lubricating action
² antibodies
² enzymes
² waste products
4 Functions of Saliva
1. ubricating the mouth
2. Moistening and lubricating materials in
the mouth
3. Dissolving chemicals that:
² stimulate taste buds
² provide sensory information
4. Initiate digestion of:
² complex carbohydrates by enzyme salivary
amylase (ptyalin or alpha-amylase)
² lipids by enzyme lingual lipase
Teeth
Figure 24²8
The Teeth
Tongue movements pass food across occlusal surfaces
of teeth
Chew (masticate) food
Tooth Structure:
Dentin:
² a mineralized matrix similar to that of bone
² does not contain cells
Pulp cavity:
² receives blood vessels and nerves through the root canal
Root of each tooth sits in a bony socket (alveolus)
A layer of cementum covers dentin of the root:
² providing protection and anchoring periodontal ligament
The Crown
Figure 24²9
Dental Succession
During embryonic development, 2 sets of teeth
form:
Primary dentition or deciduous teeth-
Also called primary teeth, milk teeth, or baby
teeth
20 temporary teeth of primary dentition
5 on each side of upper and lower jaws:
² 2 incisors,1 cuspid, 2 deciduous molars
Secondary dentition or permanent
dentition
Replaces deciduous teeth, 32 permanent teeth
8 on each side, upper and lower:
² 2 incisors, 1 cuspid, 5 molars
Mastication
Also called chewing
Food is forced from oral cavity to
vestibule and back:
² crossing and recrossing occlusal surfaces
Mastication muscles close the jaws
Slide or rock lower jaw from side to side
Chewing involves mandibular:
² elevation and depression
² protraction and retraction
² medial and lateral movement
The Pharynx
Figure 24²10
The Esophagus
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Figure 24²12a
The Stomach
Figure 24²12b
Anatomy of the Stomach
The stomach is shaped like an expanded J:
² short lesser curvature forms medial surface
² long greater curvature forms lateral surface
Anterior and posterior surfaces are smoothly
rounded
Shape and size vary:
² from individual to individual
² from 1 meal to the next
Stomach typically extends between levels of
vertebrae T7 and 3
4 Regions of the Stomach
Figure 24²13
Gastric Pits
Are shallow depressions that open onto the gastric
surface
Mucous cells:
² at base, or neck, of each gastric pit
² actively divide, replacing superficial cells
Chyme- Mixture of secretions and food in the
stomach
In fundus and body of stomach:
² extend deep into underlying lamina propria
Each gastric pit communicates with several gastric
glands ²
Secretory cells in gastric glands:
² parietal cells
² chief cells
The Secretion of
üydrochloric Acid
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Figure 24²14
Pyloric Glands
Table 24²1
Digestion in the Stomach
Stomach performs preliminary digestion of
proteins by pepsin:
² some digestion of carbohydrates (by salivary amylase)
² lipids (by lingual lipase)
Stomach contents:
² become more fluid
² pü approaches 2.0
² pepsin activity increases
² protein disassembly begins
Although digestion occurs in the stomach, nutrients are
not absorbed there
Associated Glandular Organs
Stomach: Pancreas:
² gastric juices ² digestive
² stomach acids enzymes |
² pepsin ² buffers
iver: `
² Rile
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Figure 24²1·
The Small Intestine
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Figure 24²18
Common Rile Duct from the liver
and gallbladder meets pancreatic
duct near duodenum
obules of the Pancreas
Are separated by connective tissue partitions
(septa)
Contain blood vessels and tributaries of
pancreatic ducts
In each lobule:
² ducts branch repeatedly
² end in blind pockets (pancreatic acini)
Pancreatic Islets -Endocrine tissues of
pancreas
Scattered (1% of pancreatic cells)
Functions of the Pancreas
1. Endocrine cells:
² of pancreatic islets
² secrete insulin and glucagon into bloodstream
2. Exocrine cells:
² acinar cells
² epithelial cells of duct system
Pancreatic Secretions - 1000 ml (1 qt)
pancreatic juice per day
Controlled by hormones from duodenum
Contain pancreatic enzymes
Pancreatic Enzymes
Pancreatic alpha-amylase:
² a carbohydrase
² breaks down starches
² similar to salivary amylase
Pancreatic lipase:
² breaks down complex lipids
² releases products (m fatty acids) that are easily absorbed
Nucleases:
² break down nucleic acids
Proteolytic enzymes:
² break certain proteins apart
² proteases break large protein complexes
² peptidases break small peptides into amino acids
Proteolytic Enzymes
70% of all pancreatic enzyme
production
Secreted as inactive proenzymes
Activated after reaching small
intestine
Trypsin- An active protease
Enterokinase in duodenum:
² converts trypsinogen to trypsin
The iver
Is the largest visceral organ (1.5 kg)
ies in right hypochondriac and epigastric
regions
Extends to left hypochondriac and
umbilical regions
Performs essential metabolic and
synthetic functions
The Anatomy of the iver
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Figure 24²19
The Porta üepatis
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Figure 24²20
üepatocytes
In a liver lobule form a series of irregular
plates arranged like wheel spokes
Rlood enters liver sinusoids:
² from small branches of hepatic portal vein
² from hepatic artery proper
As blood flows through sinusoids:
² hepatocytes absorb solutes from plasma
² and secrete materials such as plasma proteins
The Rile Duct System
iver secretes bile fluid:
² into a network of narrow channels (bile
canaliculi)
² between opposing membranes of adjacent liver
cells
The Right and eft üepatic Ducts Collect bile
from all bile ducts of liver lobes
Unite to form common hepatic duct which
leaves the liver
3 Functions of the iver
1. Metabolic regulation
2. üematological regulation
3. Rile production
3 Functions of the iver
Metabolic Regulation
The liver regulates:
1. composition of circulating blood
2. nutrient metabolism
3. waste product removal
4. nutrient storage
5. drug inactivation
Composition of
Circulating Rlood
All blood leaving absorptive surfaces of digestive
tract:
² enters hepatic portal system
² flows into the liver
iver cells extract nutrients or toxins from blood:
² before it reaches systemic circulation through hepatic
veins
iver removes and stores excess nutrients:
² corrects nutrient deficiencies by mobilizing stored
reserves or performing synthetic activities
Metabolic Activities of the iver
Carbohydrate metabolism
ipid metabolism
Amino acid metabolism
Waste product removal
]itamin storage
Mineral storage
Drug inactivation
The iver and üematological
Regulation (1 of 2)
argest blood reservoir in body
Receives 25% of cardiac output
Performs · hematological regulation
functions
The iver and üematological
Regulation (2 of 2)
1. Phagocytosis and antigen
presentation
2. Synthesis of plasma proteins
3. Removal of circulating hormones
4. Removal of antibodies
5. Removal or storage of toxins
·. Synthesis and secretion of bile
ipid Digestion and Absorption
Figure 24²21
The Gallbladder
Is a pear-shaped, muscular sac
Stores and concentrates bile prior to excretion
into small intestine
Is located in the fossa on the posterior surface of
the liver·s right lobe
Cystic duct extends from gallbladder
Union with common hepatic duct forms common
bile duct
Stores bile
Releases bile into duodenum:
² only under stimulation of hormone cholecystokinin
(CCK)
Without CCK
Figure 24²22
Intestinal üormones
Figure 24²23
Functions of the arge Intestine
Reabsorption of water
Compaction of intestinal contents into feces
Absorption of important vitamins produced by bacteria
Storage of fecal material prior to defecation
Also called large bowel
Is about 1.5 meters long and 7.5 cm wide
3 Parts of the arge Intestine:
1. Cecum:
² the pouchlike first portion -Stores materials and begins compaction
2. Colon: the largest portion, üas a larger diameter and
thinner wall than small intestine
The wall of the colon:
² forms a series of pouches (haustra) which permit expansion and
elongation of colon
3. Rectum: the last 15 cm of digestive tract
The Appendix
Also called vermiform appendix
Is a slender, hollow appendage (about 9 cm
long)
Is dominated by lymphoid nodules (a
lymphoid organ)
Is attached to posteromedial surface of
cecum:
² mesoappendix connects appendix to ileum and
cecum
4 regions :the Ascending Colon
Regins at superior border of cecum
Ascends along right lateral and posterior
wall of peritoneal cavity:
² to inferior surface of the liver
The Transverse Colon- Curves anteriorly from
right colic flexure,
² Crosses abdomen from right to left
Is supported by transverse mesocolon
Is separated from anterior abdominal wall by
greater omentum
The Descending Colon
Proceeds inferiorly along left side:
² to the iliac fossa (inner surface of left ilium)
Is retroperitoneal, firmly attached to
abdominal wall
The Sigmoid Colon
Is an S-shaped segment, about 15 cm long
Starts at sigmoid flexure
ies posterior to urinary bladder
Is suspended from sigmoid mesocolon
Empties into rectum
Rlood Supply of
the arge Intestine
Receives blood from tributaries of:
² superior mesenteric and inferior
mesenteric arteries
]enous blood is collected from:
² superior mesenteric and inferior
mesenteric veins
The Rectum
Forms last 15 cm of digestive tract
Is an expandable organ for temporary
storage of feces
Movement of fecal material into rectum
triggers urge to defecate
The Anal Canal-
Is the last portion of the rectum
Contains small longitudinal folds called anal
columns
Anus or anal orifice is exit of the anal canal
üas keratinized epidermis like skin
Anal Sphincters
Internal anal sphincter:
² circular muscle layer of muscularis
externa
² has smooth muscle cells, not under
voluntary control
External anal sphincter:
² encircles distal portion of anal canal
² a ring of skeletal muscle fibers, under
voluntary control
Mucosa and Glands of the Colon
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Figure 24²24
Glands of the arge Intestine
Are deeper than glands of small intestine
Are dominated by goblet cells
Mucosa does not produce enzymes
Provides lubrication for fecal material
Physiology of the arge Intestine-
ess than 10% of nutrient absorption occurs
in large intestine
Prepares fecal material for ejection from
the body
Absorption in the arge Intestine
Reabsorption of water
Reabsorption of bile salts:
² in the cecum
² transported in blood to liver
Absorption of vitamins produced by bacteria-
organic molecules
Important as cofactors or coenzymes in
metabolism
Normal bacteria in colon make 3 vitamins
that supplement diet
Absorption of organic wastes
3 ]itamins Produced
in the arge Intestine
1. ]itamin K:
² a fat-soluble vitamin
² required by liver for synthesizing 4 clotting factors,
including prothrombin
2. Riotin:
² a water-soluble vitamin
² important in glucose metabolism
3. Pantothenic acid:
² a water-soluble vitamin
² required in manufacture of steroid hormones and
some neurotransmitters
Organic Wastes
Racteria convert bilirubin to urobilinogens and
stercobilinogens:
² urobilinogens absorbed into bloodstream are excreted
in urine
² urobilinogens and stercobilinogens in colon convert to
urobilins and stercobilins by exposure to oxygen
Racteria break down peptides in feces and
generate:
² ammonia:
as soluble ammonium ions
² indole and skatole:
nitrogen compounds responsible for odor of feces
² hydrogen sulfide:
gas that produces ´rotten eggµ odor
The Defecation
Reflex
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Figure 24²25
Movements of the
arge Intestine
Gastroileal and gastroenteric reflexes:
² move materials into cecum while you eat
Movement from cecum to transverse colon is
very slow: allowing hours for water
absorption
Peristaltic waves move material along length
of colon
Segmentation movements (haustral
churning) mix contents of adjacent haustra
Movements of the
arge Intestine
Movement from transverse colon through rest of
large intestine results from powerful peristaltic
contractions (mass movements)
Stimulus is distension of stomach and duodenum;
relayed over intestinal nerve plexuses
Distension of the rectal wall triggers defecation
reflex:
² 2 positive feedback loops
² both loops triggered by stretch receptors in rectum
Elimination of Feces
Figure 24²2·
Processing Nutrients
The digestive system:
² breaks down physical structure of food
² disassembles component molecules
Molecules released into bloodstream are:
² absorbed by cells
Rroken down to provide energy for ATP
synthesis:
² used to synthesize carbohydrates, proteins,
and lipids
Digestive Enzymes
Are secreted by:
² salivary glands
² tongue
² stomach
² pancreas
Rreak molecular bonds in large organic
molecules:
² carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic
acids
² in a process called hydrolysis
Digestive Enzymes
Are divided into classes by targets:
² carbohydrases:
break bonds between simple sugars
² proteases:
break bonds between amino acids
² lipases:
separate fatty acids from glycerides
Rrush border enzymes break nucleotides into:
² sugars
² phosphates
² nitrogenous bases
Complex Carbohydrate Digestion
Proceeds in 2 steps:
1. carbohydrases (from salivary glands and
pancreas)-Function at pü ·.7²7.5:
² salivary amylase - From parotid and
submandibular salivary glands, Rreaks down
starches (complex carbohydrates),Produces:
² disaccharides (2 simple sugars)
² trisaccharides (3 simple sugars)
² pancreatic alpha-amylase-
2. brush border enzymes- Fragment disaccharides
and trisaccharides into monosaccharides
(simple sugars):maltase splits maltose into 2
glucose
Absorption of Monosaccharides
Intestinal epithelium absorbs
monosaccharides:
² by facilitated diffusion and cotransport
² via a carrier protein
Facilitated Diffusion
vs. Cotransport
Facilitated diffusion:
² moves only 1 molecule or ion through cell membrane,
does not require ATP
² will not occur against opposing concentration gradient
Cotransport:
² moves more than 1 molecule or ion at the same time
² transported materials move in same direction
² may require ATP to preserve cell homeostasis
² can occur against opposing concentration gradient
ipid Digestion
Involves:
² lingual lipase from glands of tongue-Regins triglycerides breakdown
in mouth
Continues for limited time within stomach
Digests 20% of lipids before chyme enters duodenum
Rile salts improve chemical digestion:
² by emulsifying lipid drops into tiny droplets
² providing better access for pancreatic lipase
² pancreatic lipase from pancreas-Rreak off 2 fatty acids, leaving
monoglycerides ,Are water-soluble enzymes, Attack only exposed
surfaces of lipid drops
Triglycerides
Are the most important and abundant dietary lipids
Consist of 3 fatty acids attached to 1 molecule glycerol
ipid Absorption
Intestinal cells synthesize new
triglycerides from monoglycerides and
fatty acids
Triglycerides and other absorbed
molecules are coated with proteins:
² creating chylomicrons
Intestinal cells secrete chylomicrons
into interstitial fluid by exocytosis
Protein Digestion
Is complex and time-consuming:
² mechanical processing in oral cavity
(mastication) and chemical processing in
stomach acid (üCl) allows proteolytic enzymes
to attack proteins
² pepsin:
proteolytic enzyme
works at pü 1.5²2.0
breaks peptide bonds within polypeptide chain
² when chyme enters duodenum:
enterokinase from small intestine triggers conversion
of trypsinogen to trypsin
pü is adjusted to 7²8
pancreatic proteases begin working
Absorption of
Amino Acids
Dipeptidases:
² enzymes on epithelial surfaces of small
intestine
² break short peptide chains into individual amino
acids
After diffusing to basal surface of cell:
² amino acids are released into interstitial fluid
² by facilitated diffusion and cotransport
Digestive Secretion
and Absorption
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Figure 24²27
Absorption of Ions and ]itamins
Table 24²4
Ion Absorption
Osmosis does not distinguish among solutes:
² determined only by total concentration of solutes
To maintain homeostasis:
² concentrations of specific ions must be regulated
Sodium ion absorption:
² rate increased by aldosterone (steroid hormone from
adrenal cortex)
Calcium ion absorption:
² involves active transport at epithelial surface
² rate increased by parathyroid hormone (PTü) and
calcitriol
Ion Absorption
Potassium ion concentration increases:
² as other solutes move out of lumen
Other ions diffuse into epithelial cells along
concentration gradient
Cation absorption (magnesium, iron):
² involves specific carrier proteins
² cell must use ATP to transport ions to interstitial fluid
Anions (chloride, iodide, bicarbonate, and
nitrate):
² are absorbed by diffusion or carrier mediated transport
Phosphate and sulfate ions:
² enter epithelial cells by active transport
]itamins
Are organic compounds required in very small
quantities
Are divided in 2 major groups:
² fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K
- Their structure allows them to dissolve in lipids
² 9 water-soluble vitamins:
² all R vitamins (common in milk and meats)
² vitamin C (found in citrus)
All but 1 of water-soluble vitamins easily diffuse
across digestive epithelium
]itamin R12- Cannot be absorbed by intestinal
mucosa in normal amounts:
² unless bound to intrinsic factor (glycoprotein secreted
by parietal cells of stomach
5 Effects of Aging on
the Digestive System
1. Division of epithelial stem cells declines:
² digestive epithelium becomes more susceptible
to damage by abrasion, acids, or enzymes
2. Smooth muscle tone and general motility
decreases:peristaltic contractions become
weaker
3. Cumulative damage from toxins (alcohol,
other chemicals) absorbed by digestive
tract and transported to liver for
processing
5 Effects of Aging on
the Digestive System
4. Rates of colon cancer and stomach
cancer rise with age:
² oral and pharyngeal cancers common
among elderly smokers
5. Decline in olfactory and gustatory
sensitivities:
² lead to dietary changes that affect
entire body
The Digestive System
and Other Systems
Figure 24²28
SUMMARY (1 of 4)
Digestive system:
² digestive tract
² accessory organs
Digestive system functions:
² ingestion
² mechanical processing
² digestion
² secretion
² absorption
SUMMARY (2 of 4)
Oral cavity
Ruccal cavity:
² oral mucosa
Tongue:
² intrinsic tongue muscles
² extrinsic tongue muscles
Salivary glands
Teeth,
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach:
² cephalic phase
² gastric phase
² intestinal phase
SUMMARY (3 of 4)
Small intestine:
² gastroenteric reflex
² gastroileal reflex
Pancreas
iver:
² bile
Gallbladder
Intestinal hormones:
² secretin
² cholecystokinin (CCK)
² gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)
² vasoactive intestinal peptide (]IP)
² gastrin
² enterocrinin
SUMMARY (4 of 4)
arge intestine:
² cecum
² colon
² rectum
Processing and absorption of nutrients
Carbohydrate digestion and absorption
ipid digestion and absorption
Protein digestion and absorption
Water absorption
Ion absorption
]itamin absorption