□ Basic scheme of PCM system

□ Quantization
□ Quantization Error
□ Companding
□ Block diagram & function of TDM-PCM
communication system

1
 Basic scheme of PCM system
□ The most common technique for using
digital signals to encode analog data is
PCM.
□ Example: To transfer analog voice signals
off a local loop to digital end office within
the phone system, one uses a codec.

2
 Cont’d...
□ Because voice data limited to frequencies
below 4000 Hz, a codec makes 8000
samples/sec. (i.e., 125 microsecond/sample).

□ If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a

rate higher than twice the highest signal
frequency, the samples contain all the
information of the original signal.

3
 PCM Block Diagram

• Most common form of analog to digital modulation

• Four step process
1. Signal is sampled using PAM (Sample)
2. Integer values assigned to signal (PAM)
3. Values converted to binary (Quantized)
4. Signal is digitally encoded for transmission
(Encoded)

4
4 Steps Process

5
 Cont’d…
□ Analog signal is sampled.
□ Converted to discrete-time continuous-amplitude signal
(Pulse Amplitude Modulation)

□ Pulses are quantized and assigned a digital value.

□ A 7-bit sample allows 128 quantizing levels.

□ PCM uses non-linear encoding, i.e., amplitude spacing of levels is non-

linear
□ There is a greater number of quantizing steps for low amplitude
□ This reduces overall signal distortion.

□ This introduces quantizing error (or noise).

□ PCM pulses are then encoded into a digital bit stream.
□ 8000 samples/sec x 7 bits/sample = 56 Kbps for a single voice channel.

6
PCM Example

7
 Quantization
□ A process of converting an infinite number of possibilities to a
finite number of conditions (rounding off the amplitudes of
flat-top samples to a manageable number of levels).

8
Cont’d...

Analog input signal

Sample pulse

PAM signal

PCM code 9
 Cont’d…
 The quantization interval @ quantum
= the magnitude difference between adjacent steps.

 The resolution = the magnitude of a quantum

= the voltage of the minimum step size.

 The quantization error = the quantization noise

= ½ quantum
= (orig. sample voltage – quantize level)

 PCM code = (sample voltage/resolution)

10
 QUANTIZATION ERROR

□ A difference between the exact value of the

analog signal & the nearest quantization level.

11
 Types of Quantization

Midtread Midrise
12
 Types of Quantizer
1. Uniform type : The levels of the quantized amplitude are uniformly spaced.
2. Non-uniform type : The levels are not uniform.

13
 Dynamic Range (DR)

□ Largest possible magnitude/smallest possible magnitude.

Vmax Vmax
DR  
Vmin resolution
DR  2n  1
DR (dB)  20 log( DR )
□ Where
□ DR = absolute value of dynamic range
□ Vmax = the maximum voltage magnitude
□ Vmin = the quantum value (resolution)
□ n = number of bits in the PCM code
14
 Example 1
1. Calculate the dynamic range for a
linear PCM system using 16-bit
quantizing.
2. Calculate the number of bits in PCM
code if the DR = 192.6 dB

15
 Coding Efficiency
□ A numerical indication of how
efficiently a PCM code is utilized.
□ The ratio of the minimum number of
bits required to achieve a certain
dynamic range to the actual number
of PCM bits used.
Coding Efficiency = Minimum number of bits x 100

Actual number of bits

16
 Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio (SQR)

□ The worst-case voltage SQR

R =resistance
resolution
SQR(min)  (ohm)
Qe v = rms signal
voltage
□ SQR for a maximum input signal
q = quantization
Vmax
SQR(max)  interval
Qe
□ The signal power-to-quantizing noise power ratio
average signal power
SQR( dB)  10 log
average quantizati on noise power
v2  v2 
 10 log 2
R
 10 log  q 2 
( q 12)  12 
R 17
 Example 2
1. Calculate the SQR (dB) if the input signal = 2 Vrms
and the quantization noise magnitudes = 0.02 V.
2. Determine the voltage of the input signals if the
SQR = 36.82 dB and q =0.2 V.

18
Effect of Non-Linear Coding

19
 Nonlinear Encoding

□ Quantization levels not evenly spaced

□ Reduces overall signal distortion

□ Can also be done by companding

20
 Companding
• The process of compressing and then expanding.
• The higher amplitude analog signals are compressed
prior to transmission and then expanded in receiver.
• Improving the DR of a communication system.

21
Companding Functions

22
 Method of Companding
□ For the compression, two laws are adopted: the -law in US
and Japan and the A-law in Europe.

□ -law
Vmax ln( 1   Vin Vmax ) Vmax= Max uncompressed
Vout  analog input voltage
□ ln( 1   ) Vin= amplitude of the input
signal at a particular of
instant time
 A Vin Vmax Vin 1
□ A-law  Vmax 0  Vout= compressed output
 1  ln A Vout A amplitude
Vout 
 1  ln( A Vin
Vmax ) 1 Vin A, = parameter define the
 1
 1  ln A A Vout
amount of compression

□ The typical values used in practice are: =255 and A=87.6.

□ After quantization the different quantized levels have to be
represented in a form suitable for transmission. This is done via
an encoding process.
23
 Example 3
□ A companding system with µ = 255
used to compand from 0V to 15 V
sinusoid signal. Draw the characteristic
of the typical system.
□ Draw an 8 level non-uniform quantizer
characteristic that corresponds to the
mentioned µ.

24
 Cont’d...

μ-law A-law
25
 PCM Line Speed

□ The data rate at which serial PCM bits are clocked out of the
PCM encoder onto the transmission line.

samples bits
line speed  X
second sample
□ Where
□ Line speed = the transmission rate in bits per second
□ Sample/second = sample rate, fs
□ Bits/sample = no of bits in the compressed PCM code

26
 Example 4
□ For a single PCM system with a sample
rate fs = 6000 samples per second and
a 7 bits compressed PCM code,
calculate the line speed.

27
 Virtues & Limitation of PCM

The most important advantages of PCM are:

□ Robustness to channel noise and
interference.
□ Efficient regeneration of the coded signal
along the channel path.
□ Efficient exchange between BT and SNR.
□ Uniform format for different kind of base-
band signals.
□ Flexible TDM.
28
 Cont’d…
□ Secure communication through the use of
special modulation schemes of encryption.
□ These advantages are obtained at the cost of
more complexity and increased BT.
□ With cost-effective implementations, the cost
issue no longer a problem of concern.
□ With the availability of wide-band
communication channels and the use of
sophisticated data compression techniques, the
large bandwidth is not a serious problem.

29
□ Information capacity, Bits & Bit Rate
□ Represents the number of independent
symbols that can be carried through a
system in a given unit of time.
□ Basic digital symbol is the binary digit or
bit.
□ Express the information capacity as a bit
rate.

30
 Hartley’s Law

I  Bt
Where
I = information capacity (bps)
B = bandwidth (Hz)
t = transmission time (s)

From the equation, Information capacity is a linear

function of bandwidth and transmission time and
directly proportional to both. 31
 Shannon’s Formula

I  B log 2 (1  NS ) or I  3.32 B log 10 (1  NS )

Where
I = information capacity (bps)
B = bandwidth (Hz)
S = signal to noise power ratio (unitless)
N

The higher S/N the better the performance and the

higher the information capacity
32
 Example 2
By using the Shannon’s Formula,
calculate the information capacity if
S/N = 30 dB and B = 2.7 kHz.

33
 Nyquist Sampling Rate

□ fs is equal or greater than 2fm

fs >= 2fm

fs = minimum Nyquist sample rate (Hz)

fm = maximum analog input frequency (Hz)

34
 Example 3
Determine the Nyquist sample rate for
a maximum analog input frequency
7.5 kHz.

35
 M-ary Encoding
□ It is often advantageous to encode at a level
higher than binary where there are more then two
conditions possible.
□ The number of bits necessary to produce a given
number of conditions is expressed mathematically
as

N  log 2 M
Where N = number of bits necessary
M = number of conditions, level or combinations
possible with N bits. 36
 Cont’d…
□ Each symbol represents n bits, and has
M signal states, where M = 2N.

37
 Example 4
Find the number of voltage levels
which can represent an analog
signal with
a. 8 bits per sample
b. 12 bits per sample

38
 Baud & Minimum BW
□ Baud refers to the rate of change of a signal on
the transmission medium after encoding and
modulation have occurred.

1
baud 
ts
Where
baud = symbol rate (symbol per second)
ts = time of one signaling element @ symbol
(seconds)
39
 Cont’d…

□ Minimum Bandwidth
□ Using multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation for
channel capacity

f b  2 B log 2 M

Where fb= channel capacity (bps)

B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (Hz)
M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels

40
 Cont’d…

For B necessary to pass M-ary digitally modulated carriers

 fb  fb
B
 log M 
  N  baud
 2 

Where N is the number of bits encoded into each

signaling element.

41
□ Converting standard logic level to a form
more suitable to telephone line transmission.

□ The line codes properties:

1. Transmission BW should be small as
possible
2. Efficiency should be as high as possible
3. Error detection & correction capability
4. Transparency (Encoded signal is received
faithfully)
42
 Cont’d...
□ Six factors must be considered when
selecting a line encoding format;
1.transmission voltage & DC component
2.Duty cycle
3.Bandwidth consideration
4.Clock and framing bit recovery
5.Error detection
6.Ease of detection and decoding

43
 Why Digital Signaling?
□ Low cost digital circuits

□ The flexibility of the digital approach

(because digital data from digital
sources may be merged with digitized
data derived from analog sources to
provide general purpose
communication system)

44
 Digital Modulation
□ Using Digital Signals to Transmit Digital Data
□ Bits must be changed to digital signal for transmission
□ Unipolar encoding
□ Positive or negative pulse used for zero or one
□ Polar encoding
□ Uses two voltage levels (+ and - ) for zero or one
□ Bipolar encoding
□ +, -, and zero voltage levels are used

45
 Non-Return to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
□ Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits.
□ Voltage constant during bit interval.
□ no transition, no return to zero voltage
□ More often, negative voltage for one value and positive for the
other.

46
 Non-Return to Zero Inverted (NRZ-I)
□ Nonreturn to zero inverted on ones
□ Constant voltage pulse for duration of bit
□ Data encoded as presence or absence of signal
transition at beginning of bit time
□ Transition (low to high or high to low) denotes a binary 1
□ No transition denotes binary 0
□ An example of differential encoding

47
 Multilevel Binary(Bipolar-AMI)
• zero represented by no line signal
• one represented by positive or negative pulse
• one pulses alternate in polarity
• No loss of sync if a long string of ones (zeros still a
problem)
• No net dc component
• Lower bandwidth
• Easy error detection

0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
48
 Pseudoternary
□ One represented by absence of line signal
□ Zero represented by alternating positive and negative
□ No advantage or disadvantage over bipolar-AMI

0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

49
 Manchester
□ There is always a mid-bit transition {which is used as a
clocking mechanism}.

□ The direction of the mid-bit transition represents the

digital data.

□ 1  low-to-high transition

□ 0  high-to-low transition

□ Consequently, there may be a second transition at the

beginning of the bit interval.

□ Used in 802.3 baseband coaxial cable and CSMA/CD

twisted pair.

50
51
 Differential Manchester
□ mid-bit transition is ONLY for clocking.

□ 1  absence of transition at the beginning of the bit

interval

□ 0  presence of transition at the beginning of the bit

interval

□ Differential Manchester is both differential and bi-

phase.
[Note – the coding is the opposite convention from NRZI.]

□ Used in 802.5 (token ring) with twisted pair.

□ * Modulation rate for Manchester and Differential

Manchester is twice the data rate  inefficient
encoding for long-distance applications. 52
53
 Example 5
□ Sketch the data wave form for a bit
stream 11010 using
□ NRZL
□ Bipolar AMI
□ Pseudoternary

54
55
 Forms of Digital Modulation

v(t )  V sin( 2ft   )

•If the amplitude, V of the carrier is varied proportional to
the information signal, a digital modulated signal is called
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
•If the frequency, f of the carrier is varied proportional to
the information signal, a digital modulated signal is called
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

56
 Cont’d…
□ If the phase, θ of the carrier is varied proportional to the
information signal, a digital modulated signal is called
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

□ If both the amplitude and the phase, θ of the carrier are

varied proportional to the information signal, a digital
modulated signal is called Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM)

57
Cont’d...

58
 Block Diagram

Simplified block diagram of a digital modulation system

59
 Cont’d…
□ Precoder performs level conversion &
encodes incoming data into group of bits
that modulate an analog carrier.

□ Modulated carrier filtered, amplified &

transmitted through transmission medium to
Rx.

□ In Rx, the incoming signals filtered, amplified

& applied to the demodulator and decoder
circuits which extracts the original source
information from modulated carrier. 60
□ Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
□ Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
□ Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

61
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
□ A binary information signal directly modulates the amplitude
of an analog carrier.
□ Sometimes called Digital Amplitude Modulation (DAM)

vask (t )  [1  vm (t )] cos(ct ) A
2

Where vask (t) = amplitude shift keying wave

vm(t) = digital information signal (volt)
A/2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (volt)
ωc = analog carrier radian frequency (rad/s)
62
 Cont’d...

Digital Amplitude Modulation

 A cos(c t ) for logic '1' , vm (t )  1

vask (t )  
 0 for logic '0' , vm (t )  1
63
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

□ Called as Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)

□ The phase shift in carrier frequency (∆f) is proportional to
the amplitude of the binary input signal (vm(t)) and the
direction of the shift is determined by the polarity

v fsk (t )  Vc cos2 [ f c  vm (t )f ]t

Where vfsk(t) = binary FSK waveform

Vc = peak anlog carrier amplitude (volt)
fc = analog carrier center frequency (Hz)
∆f = peak shift in analog carrier frequency (Hz)
64
vm(t) = binary input signal (volt)
 Vc cos2 [ f c  f ]t for logic '1' , vm (t )  1
v fsk (t )  
Vc cos2 [ f c  f ]t for logic '0' , vm (t )  1

fm  fs
f  ,
2
where
f  frequency deviation (Hz)
f m  f s  absolute difference between mark & space frequency (Hz)
65
B  ( f s  fb )  ( f m  fb )  f s  f m  2 fb  2(f  fb )

66
 Cont’d...

Binary Input Frequency Output

0 Space (fs)

1 Mark (fm)

67
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

□ Another form of angle-modulated, constant

amplitude digital modulation.
□ Binary digital signal input & limited number of output
phases possible.
□ M-ary digital modulation scheme with the number
of output phases defined by M.
□ The simplest PSK is Binary Phase-Shift Keying (BPSK)
□ N= 1, M=2
□ Two phases possible for carrier with one phase for logic 1
and another phase for logic 0
□ The output carrier shifts between two angles separated by
180°
68
 Cont’d...

a) Truth Table b) Phasor Diagram c) Constellation Diagram

69
EXAMPLE ASK,FSK & PSK

70
EXAMPLE ASK,FSK & PSK

71
EXAMPLE ASK,FSK & PSK

72
 Exercise 4.1
For the digital message 1011 0100
1010, sketch the waveform for the
following:
a. ASK
b. FSK
c. PSK

73
 APPLICATIONS OF ASK,FSK & PSK

□ ASK – It is used in multichannel

telegraph systems. Simple ASK is no
longer used in digital communication
systems due to noise problems.
□ FSK – are used mainly for low speed
digital data transmissions.
□ PSK_Owing to PSK's simplicity, it is
widely used in existing technologies.
□ Such as wireless LAN, bluetooth…
74
END OF PART 2

75