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• Transducer
– a device that converts a primary form of energy into a
corresponding signal with a different energy form
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic,
optical, chemical, etc.
– take form of a sensor or an actuator
• Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
– a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
– acquires information from the “real world”
• Actuator (e.g., heater)
– a device that generates a signal or stimulus
sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world
actuator system
sensor sensor
sensor bus sensor bus
processor PC processor
comm. comm.
comm. card
– photodiode
• light I
• Secondary Transducers
– Wheatstone Bridge
– Amplifiers
• Rotation
– gyroscope
• Pressure
Diaphragm (Upper electrode)
• Thermistor Half-Bridge
– voltage divider
– one element varies
• Wheatstone Bridge
– R3 = resistive sensor
– R4 is matched to nominal value of R3
– If R1 = R2, Vout-nominal = 0 VCC
– Vout varies as R3 changes
R1+R4
• Voltage Follower
– buffer
• Differential Amp
• Integrating Amp
• Differentiating Amp
• Voltage-to-Current
• Input stage
– high input impedance input stage
• buffers gain stage
– no common mode gain
– can have differential gain
• Gain stage
– differential gain, low input impedance total differential gain
2R2 R1 R4
• Overall amplifier Gd
– amplifies only the differential component
R1 R3
• high common mode rejection ratio
– high input impedance suitable for biopotential electrodes with high
output impedance
– look-up table
6.000
T1
– digital calibration
5.000
1001
Frequency (MHz)
1010
• T = a + bV +cV2,
4.000
T2 1001
offset
3.000
1110
T3
• Compensation 1.000