Chapter 1

Introducing Operating Systems

Discuss with your partner sitting
next to you
 Do you have a smart phone?
 What is the operating system of your smart phone?
 Do you use the functions of the operating system?
How do you use them?
 Is it possible to use the smart phone without operating
system?
 Is your smart phone a computer?

Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 2

Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
describe:
 Innovations in operating systems development
 The basic role of an operating system
 The major operating system software subsystem
managers and their functions
 The types of machine hardware on which operating
systems run

Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 3

Learning Objectives (cont'd.)
 The differences among batch, interactive, real-time,
hybrid, and embedded operating systems
 Design considerations of operating systems designers

Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 4

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Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 5
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Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 6

Introduction
 Operating systems
 Manage computer system hardware and software
 This text explores:
 What they are
 How they work
 What they do
 Why they do it
 This chapter briefly describes:
 Workings of operating systems

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What Is an Operating System?
 Computer system
 Software (programs)
 Hardware (tangible machine/electronic components)
 Operating system
 Chief software component
 Manages all hardware and all software and controls:
 Every file, device, section of main memory, and moment of
processing time
 Who can use the system and how system is used

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Operating system

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Operating System Software
 Includes four essential subsystem managers
 Memory Manager
 Processor Manager
 Device Manager
 File Manager
 Each manager:
 Works closely with other managers
 Performs a unique role

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Operating System Software
(cont'd.)
(figure 1.1)
This pyramid represents
an operating system on a
stand-alone computer
unconnected to a
network. It shows the four
subsystem managers and
the user interface.
© Cengage Learning 2014

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Operating System Software
(cont'd.)
 User Interface
 Allows the user to issue commands to the operating
system
 Manager tasks
 Monitor the system’s resources continuously
 Enforce policies determining:
 Who gets what, when, and how much
 Allocate a resource (when appropriate)
 Deallocate a resource (when appropriate)

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Disk Operating System (DOS)
Click Start.
Select Run.
In the "Open:" field, type command.
Click OK.
DOS commands :
ping yahoo.com
dir
cd c:\windows

Understanding Operating Systems, Sixth Edition 13

 (figure 1.2)
Each manager at the base
of the pyramid takes
responsibility for its own
tasks while working
harmoniously with every
other manager.
© Cengage Learning 2014

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Operating System Software
(cont'd.)
 Network Manager
 Coordinates the services required for multiple systems
to work cohesively together
 Shared network resources: memory space, processors,
printers, databases, applications, etc.

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Main Memory Management

 In charge of main memory

 Random access memory (RAM)
 Requires constant flow of electricity to hold data
 Responsibilities include:
 Checking validity and legality of memory space request
 Reallocating memory to make more useable space
available
 Deallocating memory to reclaim it
 Protecting space in main memory occupied by
operating system

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Main Memory Management
 Read-only memory (ROM)
 Another type of memory
 Critical when computer is powered on
 Holds firmware: programming code
 When and how to load each piece of the operating system
after the power is turned on
 Non-volatile
 Contents retained when the power is turned off

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Processor Management
 In charge of allocating Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Tracks process status
 Program’s “instance of execution”
 Comparable to a traffic controller
 When a process is finished or maximum computation
time expired
 Processor Manager reclaims the CPU and allocates to next
waiting process
 Computer with multiple CPUs
 More complex management

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Processor management

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Device Management
 In charge of connecting with every available device
 Printers, ports, disk drives, etc.
 Responsibilities include:
 Choosing most efficient resource allocation method
 Based on scheduling policy
 Identifying each device uniquely
 Starting device operation (when appropriate)
 Monitoring device progress
 Deallocating the device
 What is the function of a device driver?

Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 20

Device management

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File Management
 In charge of tracking every file in the system
 Data files, program files, compilers, application
programs, etc.
 Responsibilities include:
 Enforcing user/program resource access restrictions
 Uses predetermined access policies
 Controlling user/program modification restrictions
 Read-only, read-write, create, delete
 Allocating space for a file on secondary storage
 One large storage area or smaller linked pieces
 Retrieving files efficiently
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Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 23
Network Management
 Included in operating systems with networking
capability
 Authorizes users to share resources
 Overall responsibility for every aspect of network
connectivity
 Devices, files, memory space, CPU capacity, etc.

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User Interface
 Portion of the operating system
 Direct interaction with users
 Two primary types
 Graphical user interface (GUI)
 Input from pointing device
 Menu options, desktops, and formats vary
 Command line interface
 Keyboard-typed commands that display on a monitor
 Strict requirements for every command: typed accurately;
correct syntax; combinations of commands assembled
correctly

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Graphical user interface

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Command line interface

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Cooperation Issues
 No single manager performs tasks in isolation
 Each element of an operating system
 Performs individual tasks and
 Harmoniously interacts with other managers
 Incredible precision required for operating system to work
smoothly
 More complicated when networking is involved

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Cloud Computing
 Practice of using Internet-connected resources
 Performing processing, storage, or other operations
 Operating system maintains responsibility
 Managing all local resources and coordinating data
transfer to and from the cloud
 Role of the operating system
 Accessing resources
 Managing the system efficiently

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Cloud computing

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An Evolution of Computing
Hardware
 Hardware: physical machine and electronic
components
 Main memory (RAM)
 Data/Instruction storage and execution
 Central processing unit (CPU)
 Controls interpretation and execution of instructions
 Initiates or performs these operations: storage, data
manipulation and input/output
 Input/output devices (I/O devices)
 All peripheral devices in the system: printers, disk drives,
CD/DVD drives, keyboards, etc.
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An Evolution of Computing
Hardware (cont'd.)
 Computer classification
 At one time: based on memory capacity
 Current platforms

(table 1.1)
A brief list of
platforms and a few
of the operating
systems designed to
run on them, listed
in alphabetical
order.

Understanding Operating
Understanding Operating Systems, 7e
Systems, 7e 32
An Evolution of Computing
Hardware (cont'd.)
 Moore’s Law: Gordon Moore, 1965
 Each new processor chip compared to its predecessor
 Twice as much capacity
 Released within 18-24 months

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An Evolution of Computing
Hardware (cont'd.)
(figure 1.6)
Gordon Moore’s 1965 paper
included the prediction that
the number of transistors
incorporated in a chip will
approximately double every
24 months [Moore, 1965].
Courtesy of Intel Corporation.

Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 34

Types of Operating Systems
 Five categories
 Batch
 Interactive
 Real-time
 Hybrid
 Embedded
 Two distinguishing features
 Response time
 Method of data entry into the system

Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 35

Types of Operating Systems
(cont'd.)
 Batch systems: jobs entered as a whole and in
sequence
 Input relied on punched cards or tape
 Efficiency measured in throughput
 Interactive systems: allow multiple jobs
 Faster turnaround than batch systems
 Slower than real-time systems
 Introduced to provide fast turnaround when debugging
programs
 Complex algorithms: share processing power

Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 36

Punch card

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Punch cards

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Punch card machine

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Tape drive

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Computer terminal

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Computer centre with terminals

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Types of Operating Systems
(cont'd.)
 Real-time systems
 Reliability is critical
 Used in time-critical environments
 Spacecraft, airport traffic control, fly-by-wire aircraft, critical
industrial processes, medical systems, etc.
 Two types of real-time systems
 Hard real-time systems: risk total system failure if the
predicted time deadline is missed
 Soft real-time systems: suffer performance degradation as a
consequence of a missed deadline

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Flight management system

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Types of Operating Systems
(cont'd.)
 Hybrid systems
 Combination of batch and interactive
 Light interactive load
 Accepts and runs batch programs in the background
 Network operating systems
 Special class of software
 Users perform tasks using few, if any, local resources, e.g.,
cloud computing
 Wireless networking capability
 Standard feature in many computing devices: cell phones,
tablets, and other handheld Web browsers

Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 45

 (figure 1.7)
Example of a
simple network.
The server is
connected by cable
to the router and
other devices
connect wirelessly.
© Cengage
Learning 2014

Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 46

Types of Operating Systems
(cont'd.)
 Embedded systems
 Computers placed inside other products
 Automobiles, digital music players, elevators, pacemakers,
etc.
 Adds features and capabilities
 Operating system requirements
 Perform specific set of programs
 Non-interchangeable among systems
 Small kernel and flexible function capabilities

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Embedded systems in automobile

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Brief History of Operating Systems
Development
 Evolution of operating systems: parallels evolution of
computer hardware
 1940s
 Computers operated by programmers presiding from
the main console
 Fixing a program error
 1) stop the processor; 2) read register contents; 3) make
corrections in memory; 4) resume operations
 Poor machine utilization
 CPU processed data and performed calculations for fraction
of available time
 “Bug”: system not working correctly

Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 49

Computer system in the 40s

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 (figure 1.8)
Dr. Grace Hopper’s
research journal included
the first computer bug, the
remains of a moth that
became trapped in the
computer’s relays, causing
the system to crash.
[Photo © 2002 IEEE]

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Brief History of Operating Systems
Development (cont'd.)
 1950s: second generation
 Two widely adopted improvements
 Computer operators: humans hired to facilitate machine
operation
 Job scheduling: programs with similar requirements grouped
together (batch )
 Expensive time lags between CPU and I/O devices
 Improvements to the CPU and the system
 I/O devices (tape drives and disks): gradually became faster

Understanding Operating
Understanding Operating Systems, 7e
Systems, 7e 52
Computer operators in a computer
centre

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Brief History of Operating Systems
Development (cont'd.)
 1950s
 Improvements to the CPU and the system
 Records were grouped into blocks before retrieval or storage
 Control unit placed between I/O and CPU as a buffer: reduced
speed discrepancy
 1960s
 Faster CPUs
 Speed caused problems with slower I/O devices

Understanding Operating
Understanding Operating Systems, 7e
Systems, 7e 54
Brief History of Operating Systems
Development (cont'd.)
 1960s
 Multiprogramming: many programs loaded and sharing
the CPU
 Passive multiprogramming: interrupts
 Active multiprogramming: time slicing
 1970s
 Faster CPUs: caused problems with slower I/O devices
 Main memory physical capacity limitations
 Multiprogramming schemes: increase CPU use
 Virtual memory system: solves physical limitation
Understanding Operating
Understanding Operating Systems, 7e
Systems, 7e 55
Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 56
Brief History of Operating Systems
Development
 1980s
(cont'd.)
 More flexible hardware
 Logical functions built on replaceable circuit boards
 Operating system functions
 Made part of the hardware (firmware)
 Multiprocessing: more than one processor
 Allowed parallel program execution
 Evolution of personal computers and high-speed
communications
 Led to distributed processing/networked systems

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Brief History of Operating Systems
Development (cont'd.)
 1990s
 Demand for Internet capability
 Increased networking
 Increased tighter security demands
 Protect system assets from Internet threats
 Multimedia applications
 Demanded additional power, flexibility, device compatibility
for most operating systems, etc.

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internet

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 (figure 1.11)
Illustration from the 1989
proposal by Tim Berners-
Lee describing his
revolutionary “linked
information system.”

Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 60

Brief History of Operating Systems
Development (cont'd.)
 2000s
 Need for improved flexibility, reliability, and speed
 Virtual machines
 Accommodated multiple operating systems that run at the
same time and share resources
 Required OS to have an intermediate manager
 Oversee the access of each operating system to the server’s
physical resources
 Multicore processors: two to many cores
 What capabilities does the operating system need for these
processors?

Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 61

Virtual machine

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Brief History of Operating Systems
Development (cont'd.)
 2010s
 Increased mobility and wireless connectivity
 Proliferation of dual-core, quad-core, and other multicore
CPUs
 Multicore technology
 Single chip equipped with two or more processor cores
 What is the advantage over chips with transistors in close
proximity?

Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 63

Multi-core technology

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Design Considerations
 Most common overall goal
 Maximize use of the system’s resources (memory,
processing, devices, and files) and minimize downtime
 Factors included in developmental efforts
 RAM resources
 CPUs: number and type available
 Peripheral devices: variety likely to be connected
 Networking capability
 Security requirements, etc.

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Conclusion
 Overall function of operating systems
 Evolution of operating systems
 Capable of running complex computers and computer
systems
 Operating system designer
 Chooses the policies that best match the system’s
environment

Understanding Operating Systems, 7e 66