The Biological/Physiological Approach

Unit 2
 Key terms & definitions
 The Biological/Physiological Approach combines psychology & biology to explain human
behaviour. E.g., psychological factors can affect physical processes & physical factors can
affect psychological factors, e.g., neurotransmitters can affect mood, & mood can affect
neural functioning; intelligence is probably a combination of biological (genes),
psychological & social factors.
 Central Nervous System (CNS): This consists of the brain 7 spinal cord. The brain & spinal
cord control the flow of messages & information from our senses. The CNS comprises
billions of neurones which pass information around the CNS using neurotransmitters.
 Neurones: Special nerve cells that convey messages around the body. Within a neurone, the
message is an electro-chemical one called a nerve impulse. However, there are tiny gaps
between neurones (called synapses) where purely chemical messages are passed between
neurones. Although neurones only release a limited number of neurotransmitters they can
receive & respond to many more. (There are estimated to be more than 100billion neurones
in the human nervous system.)
 Synapses: These are the small junctions between neurones where neurotransmitters are
released & passed from the terminal button of one neurone (post-synaptic terminal) to the
dendrite of the receiving neurone (receptor site on pre-synaptic membrane). One neurone
can make up to a 1000 connections with adjacent neurones. Synapses can be inhibitory or
excitatory: inhibitory=prevent neurone from firing; excitatory=causes the neurone to fire.
When a neurone ‘fires’ it transmits a message, e.g., pain.
 Key terms & definitions
 Neurotransmitters: These are the chemical messengers released through the synapses; they
are released from the end of one neurone (terminal button/post-synaptic terminal), cross the
gap between neurones called the synaptic gap/cleft & attach themselves to the pre-synaptic
receptor sites on the next neurone. When there are enough neurotransmitters attached to the
post-synaptic receptor sites a nerve impulse is created & a message sent along the neurone: the
neurone ‘fires’ & an action potential is created, if no message is sent & the neurone remains
‘dormant’ that is referred to as a resting potential. Neurotransmitters can also be inhibitory or
excitatory. Dopamine is an excitatory neurotransmitter, it encourages neurones to fire sending
more information/sensations; Gaba is an inhibitory neurotransmitter (which is released when
we drink alcohol) & prevents messages from being sent between neurones; this explains why
when we drink we might suffer loss of memory, balance, inhibitions etc. as the neurones
conveying this information do not fire. Neurotransmitters include: dopamine (linked to
reward/pleasure & movement); serotonin (mood); endorphins (physical & psychological
suppression of pain);
 Genes: The messages (or units of information) that we inherit from our parents that control
aspects of our development. Genes are made up of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) which is
responsible for the protein synthesis which influences our development. They are contained
on chromosomes which are found within the nuclei of cells; we inherit 23 chromosome from
each parent, which is thought to account for shared behavioural & physical traits between
family members. Genes control physical processes in the body & some control specific
behaviours/traits (e.g., eye colour, being able to roll your tongue). However, it is rare for a
single gene to control a specific behaviour/trait. More typically genes interact with one
another to influence behaviour & traits. Genes may also interact with environmental factors
to determine & shape behaviour/traits. We share a lot of the same genetic make-up, which
explains similarities between within families etc., but there are also differences in our genetic
make-up which can account for differences in our behaviour/traits.
 Key terms & definitions
 Localisation: The brain tends to be organised, or mapped, according to function, i.e., it has
regions devoted to different roles (e.g., the hippocampus is implicated in memory function;
the medulla in breathing, the cerebellum in balance, movement, coordination, muscle tone;
hypothalamus in regulating hunger & sleep). One psychologists study the CNS is to study the
f=jobs performed by different parts of the brain – often when one of these regions has been
damaged & analysing the resultant lack of function.
 Hormones: Like neurotransmitters, hormones are chemical messengers. They are secreted
by glands: glands & hormones form the endocrine system. Hormones foster the growth &
proliferation of cells. Hormones work by attaching themselves to receptor cells on the surfaces
of target organs, or by entering the target cells of target organs directly; e.g., sex hormones,
oestrogen (ovaries) & testosterone (testes), are released by the gonads (sex organs) & are
responsible for many of the developmental changes that occur around puberty. These changes
are specific to certain parts of the body because these are the target organs, e.g., breasts in
women, or facial hair follicles in men. The changes induced by hormones can have
psychological as well as physical effects. The nature of the effect of the hormone, as with
neurotransmitters, depends on the characteristics of the receptor cells that receive the
hormones/neurotransmitters; e.g., the same hormones that speed up heart rate can slow the
digestive system (adrenalin & noradernalin). However, hormones differ significantly from
neurotransmitters: the effects of hormones tend to be far longer lasting, e.g., sex hormones &
puberty; and hormones can affect target organs in different part of the body,
neurotransmitters affect the adjacent neurone only. (NB., some substances can function as
neurotransmitters in the brain & as hormones in the bloodstream.)
 Key terms & definitions
 Nature/Nurture debate: Nature refers to the idea that our behaviour is determined by our biological
make-up & is therefore beyond our control; nurture refers to the influence of the environment & our
experiences (which we learn through our interaction with others) on our behaviour/traits. The debate is
over the extent to which nature or nurture influences our behaviour & how nature & nurture interact to
determine behaviour. E.g., is intelligence, nature or nurture – or both. To what extent is mental illness,
conditions like clinical depression, OCD, anorexia, bi-polar disorder & schizophrenia a matter of nature or
nurture. Is gender nature or nurture? Is criminality a matter of nature or nurture? Is addiction a matter of
nature or nurture, or both?
 Brain lateralisation: This refers to the structural & functional differences between the the left & right
hemispheres (sides) of the brain. Some brain functions seem to be evenly spread across the brain, such as
those connected with sensorimotor functions (connecting movement of limbs with the senses); however,
others seem to be concentrated in one side of the brain more than the other. Language is an example of this:
for most right-handed people language function is found mainly in the left hemisphere; this is also true for
60% of left-handed people (language is located in the right-hemisphere for less than 20% & the other 20%
have bilateral hemisphere function).
 Left hemisphere tends to be: Right hemisphere tends to be:
 Speech Creativity
 Analysis Patterns
 Time Spatial awareness
 Sequences Context
 Recognises: Recognises:
 Words Faces
 Letters Places
 Numbers Objects
 In-depth area of study:
 Role of CNS & neurotransmitters in human behaviour –
see definitions & Key issues.
 Role of genes in behaviour (incl. Nature/nurture debate) –
see definitions, key studies-schizophrenia & research
methods.
 Gender development & role of genes, hormones & brain
lateralisation.
 Comparing biological, learning & psychodynamic
explanations of gender development.
 Brain lateralisation & Gender
 There is some evidence to suggest that there are differences between males & females with regard to brain lateralisation:
which hemisphere of brain is involved in different functions/activities.
 Language tends to be affected by lateralisation: most comprehension & speech functions are controlled by the left
hemisphere; visuo-spatial tasks tend to lateralised to the right hemisphere. HOWEVER, this pattern is more noticeable in
men than women.
 Some research indicates that females demonstrate less brain lateralisation than males. In males, the left hemisphere of
the brain shows more activity during the same linguistic tasks than females; women tend to show bilateral activity (activity
across both sides of the brain).
 Brain damage, such as strokes that only affect one side of the brain, seem to cause more profound damage to men than
women. E.g., men who suffer strokes may suffer more speech damage than women (McGlone, 1978). This is because for
women language function is less lateralised, i.e., concentrated in one area & side of the brain, the job of interpreting &
producing speech is more evenly spread across the two sides of the brain, so that if one side of the brain is affected by a
stroke, for instance, the unaffected side may be able to take over from the damaged area & take more responsibility for that
function which it already partly had. This also appears to be true for visuo-spatial tasks; damage to the right side of the
brain in men but not women, caused a decline in non-verbal ability (McGlone, 1978).
 Wada et al. (1975), using post-mortem evidence, found that the left temporal plane tended to be slightly longer than the
right, suggesting some degree of brain lateralisation, i.e., more concentrated activity in this side. However, not all brains
showed this pattern of lateralisation, the majority of brains that did not were female ones. More sophisticated MRI
techniques have shown that on average, in males, the left temporal plane was 38% longer than the right, no such
differences were found in women (Kulynych et al., 1992).
 In some language related cognitive tasks, e.g., deciding whether 2 non-words rhymed, results have shown more activity in
the left hemisphere of male brains than females, who tended to demonstrate more symmetrical activity (Shaywitz et al.,
1995).
 Some research has replicated this finding, but other studies have not. One explanation for this night be due to the tasks
being performed. Some research might measure activities where there tends to be an inherent difference between men &
women, explaining the difference in lateralisation, whilst other studies might compare tasks in which men & women are
equally competent.
 Finally, it is worth noting there tends to be greater differences between individuals than between the sexes in overall
cognitive performance, i.e., there are greater variations between men/or women (intra-group differences) than there are
between men & women (inter-group differences).
The Biological/Physiological Approach &
Gender Development
 A person’s genetic sex is determined at conception. It is decided by the combination of sex chromosomes
(called X & Y) that we inherit from our parents. We all inherit 23 pairs of chromosomes: 22 of the 23
determine physical appearance, such as hair colour, height eye colour etc., the final pair determine sex.
 Each egg cell contains a X chromosome, each sperm can contain either an X or a Y chromosome. If the
combination is XX then the child will be female; if the combination is XY then the child will be male. A Y
chromosome must be present for a foetus to develop into a male.
 The combination of chromosomes XX or XY is called the genotype: the resulting characteristics, in this case
the genetic sex, is called the phenotype – it is the physical expression or manifestation of the genes that we
have inherited.
 One of the key effects of the sex chromosomes is to trigger the development of glands which produce sex
hormones – this is the major factor that controls whether a foetus grows into a male or female.
 Up to about 6 weeks of pre-natal development, every foetus is identical, except for the chromosome
inherited from the father. At about 6 weeks of pre-natal development the gonads (sex organs) begin to
develop. The gonads produce both the gametes (sex cells) & sex hormones. At this stage there is still no
physical difference between the developing sex organs of males & females.
 At about 8 weeks the differences begin to emerge. It is the presence of a single gene on the Y chromosome,
called SRY (which produces a protein called ‘testis-determining factor’), that dictates whether the sex organs
change into ovaries or testes. If there is no Y chromosome the foetus will develop into a female, but if there
is a Y chromosome the foetus will develop into a male. All foetuses appear to start as female & only begin to
develop into a male if there is a chromosome present. (If a genetically female mouse has the SRY gene
implanted it develops into a male mouse.)
 The Y chromosome ensures that gonads of genetic males develop into testes rather than ovaries; the testes
then start to produce male sex hormones, called androgens: 1 v.important androgen is TESTOSTERONE.
The Biological/Physiological Approach & Gender Development
 Male sex hormones such as testosterone perform 2 important functions: one is to prevent the progression of foetal
development as a female; the 2nd is to trigger development into a male, e.g., the development of external sex organs such as
the penis. It is these androgens that are responsible for the physical differences between males & females. Without the SRY
gene, causing the gonads to develop into testes & produce androgens, the foetus would remain female & go on to develop
female sex organs such as the uterus & vagina.
 Exposure to sex hormones in the womb has a permanent ‘organisational’ effect on the development of sex organs. 6-8
weeks into development a protein hormone called H-Y antigen is released if a Y chromosome is present in the foetus’s
genes. This promotes the development of testes whilst stopping the development of ovaries.
 For the 1st few weeks of foetal development all foetuses have the same undeveloped sex organs, both male (the Wolffian
system) & female (the Mullerian system). After 3 months of pre-natal development, if testes have begun to develop the
male Wolffian system will develop fully into male sex organs; alternatively, the absence of male sex hormones will result in
the full development of the female Mullerian system.
 The first hormone to be released by the testes is called anti-Mullerian hormone; this prevents further development of
female sex organs. The testes then start to produce the androgens that masculinise the male foetus by stimulating the
development of the male sex organs (as described above).
 NB., it is the absence of male sex hormones, rather than the presence of female sex hormones, that leads to the
development of complete female sex organs.
 In normal sexual development, after a period of quiescence (being at rest), the gonads become active again – controlling the
development of secondary sexual characteristics, i.e., those features that separate men from boys & girls from women.
These changes, although caused by hormones released from the hormones, are triggered by the hypothalamus (a
v.important brain region located in the centre of the brain in an area called the forebrain). The hypothalamus releases a
hormone that affects the pituitary gland & it is this which triggers the gonads to become active again. In males androgens
are again important. Both males & females produce testosterone & oestrogen, but produce the opposite hormone in v.small
amounts. In girls, the small amounts of testosterone produced is responsible for the development of underarm & pubic
hair.
 Male secondary sexual characteristics - testosterone Female secondary sexual characteristics – oestrogen
 Production of sperm Growth of breasts
 Growth of facial hair Development of fatty tissues, e.g., on hips
 Enlarged larynx (=deepening of voice) Development of the lining of uterus (part of control
system of the cycle that releases eggs & causes
menstruation)
 Increased muscle growth
The Biological/Physiological Approach &
Gender Development: Evaluation
 Pfeiffer (1936) removed the sex organs from male & female newborn rats & found that as
adult rats they all had pituitary glands that had female hormone release patterns. When the
rats who had their gonads removed had testes transplanted onto them, even the rats that
were originally genetically female released a steady flow of male sex hormones from their
pituitary glands.
 This suggests that the presence or absence of testosterone from the testes accounts for sex
differences in the hypothalamus (the hypothalamus is the part of the brain responsible for
the release of further sex hormones from the pituitary gland).
 Presumably, if there is testosterone in the body the hypothalamus will ‘tell’ the pituitary
gland to release more male sex hormones; however, if there is little or no testosterone
present, then the hypothalamus will cause the pituitary gland to release female sex
hormones instead.
 Thus the presence of sex hormones in the body influences how the brain, particularly the
hypothalamus, develops & responds, i.e., whether it responds in a ‘male’ or ‘female’ fashion.
 The importance of hormones in gender development is illustrated by Turner’s Syndrome.
This is a condition where the individual inherits only 1 sex chromosome, an X. No SRY gene
is present as there is no Y chromosome, so the foetus cannot develop as a male. However, as
such individuals also lack a 2nd X chromosome the embryonic gonads do not change into
ovaries. Nevertheless, in the absence of androgens (male hormones), the foetus develops
into a female in terms of internal & external genitalia, but they are infertile as they cannot
produce eggs.
The Biological/Physiological Approach & Gender
Development: Evaluation
 The role of physiological factors in gender development is supported by the Pfeiffer study; this research
showed that the hormones produced by the sex organs influenced the functioning of the hypothalamus,
demonstrating the impact of hormones & genetic sex on the brain & behaviour.
 The case study of David Reimer (see key studies) also illustrates the importance of biological factors in
gender development. David was born chromosomally & physically male, but following a surgical accident
his penis was cut off. He was then raised as a girl; however, he always felt unhappy as a girl & when
ultimately told about about his gender issues, he opted for many painful operations to enable him to revert
to being male. Despite his early upbringing as girl, it seems his biological status as a male was strong
enough to override his female nurturing: nature had seemingly won over nurture. It now seems that in
cases of sexually unambiguous individuals, gender identity is biologically determined.
 Problems with gender development also shed light on how physiological factors (genes & hormones)
influence this process:
 Androgenital syndrome: this is where an XX foetus is exposed to massive amounts of androgens (male
hormones) which masculinise the female foetus. The foetus will develop male rather than female sex
organs & will appear physically to be a baby boy, but will actually have to X chromosomes.
 Androgen insensitivity syndrome: A genetically male foetus (XY) does not respond to the masculinising
effects of androgen. As the ‘default’ development of a foetus is female this is how the XY foetus develops. A
foetus which is genetically male (XY) but insensitive to androgens develops testes under the influence of
the SRY gene on the Y chromosome, but no further masculine development occurs. The foetus becomes
feminised by lack of exposure to to androgens & develops the external genitalia of a female, retaining the
testes within the body cavity. The internal female genitalia do not form, but at puberty secondary female
sexual characteristics develop – such as breasts & widening of hips. Thus a baby with androgen insensitivity
syndrome will appear female but be chromosomally male.
 These syndromes show that both genes & hormones are important in determining gender development but
that hormone exposure can override genetic sex (either way, the biological factors can be seen to be
critical).
The Biological/Physiological Approach & Gender
Development: Evaluation
 Pseudo-hermaphrodites: A true hermaphrodite is born with both male & female genitalia & are therefore both
sexes to some extent. A pseudo-hermaphrodite are chromosomally one sex but appear physically to be the
opposite sex & are usually raised according to their physical sex. For instance, Daphne Went is a pseudo-
hermaphrodite, she suffers from androgen insensitivity syndrome; she is chromosomally male but has the physical
appearance of a female & was raised as such. She lives successfully as a woman, despite having a Y chromosome
that makes her genetically male.
 The influence of genes & hormones on gender development is obvious, pseudo-hermaphrodites illustrate this;
however, they also highlight that genetic factors alone cannot fully account for gender development. E.g., Daphne
Went is genetically male but as she failed to respond to male hormones she has external female genitalia & female
secondary sexual characteristics, but does not have internal female genitalia. However, her obvious outward
physical appearance, which is female, has resulted in her being treated as female, nurtured & socialised as a
female. This might suggest some role for nurture & social learning theory in gender development.
 Clearly there are alternative explanations of gender development, e.g., Psychodynamic & Social Learning Theory
(see Learning & Psychodynamic Approaches). However, the case of David Reimer shows how strong the influence
of biological factors can be on gender identity.
 Combination of biology & environment: Like most things, gender identity is probably not exclusively nature or
nurture. Nature may play a v.big part in gender identity, but the physical differences between boys & girls will
result in different treatment & reinforcement & will usually result in gender stereotypical behaviour. Boys will be
treated & reinforced differently to girls for a range of activities by parents, peers, culture & society. Once the
biological factors have determined our sex & gender, what part do psychological factors play in cementing this
identity: observational learning, reinforcement, identification?
 A lot of research into biological factors of gender development has been done on animals; NB., the advantages &
disadvantages of research on animals, what are these (see Learning Approach).
 Finally, compare the 3 explanations of gender development & identity we have studied: Psychodynamic, Learning
& Biological/Physiological – what are the similarities, differences, strengths & weaknesses of each? (See
Psychodynamic Approach section for table on gender development.)
2 studies in detail from the
Biological/Physiological Approach
•Can you describe & evaluate 2 key studies from the
following:

One MUST
be: Ablatio
Raine et al. Bellis et al.
Penis: Normal Gottesman &
(1997) Brain (2001) Sex
male infant Shields (1966)
abnormalities differences in
sex- Schizophrenia
in Murders. brain
reassigned as in twins. OR:
OR: maturation.
a girl (Money,
1975). And:
Ablatio Penis: Normal male infant sex-reassigned as a
girl (Money, 1975)
 Name: See above.
 Aim: To investigate the theory that all children are
born ‘gender neutral’ & are ‘created’ as males &
females as a result of how they are brought up. To use
surgical accident to investigate whether gender could
be reassigned or whether it is biologically determined
at birth.
 Method: A case study. 45 males were followed up
after gender reassignment. One was particularly
interesting. Bruce & Brian were identical twins; at 7
months, after a surgical accident during a routine
circumcision, Bruce’s penis was almost completely
burnt off. At that time it was impossible to repair the
damage surgically. Brian’s parents sought the advice
of an eminent expert in the field, Dr Money. He
believed the best course of action was change Brian’s
external genitalia to appear female & raise him as a
girl. He was castrated, his name changed to Brenda &
from the age of 12 he was given oestrogen to
encourage female rather than male puberty. (NB., see
pseudo-hermaphrodites & androgen insensitivity
syndrome.) This decision was based on previous
successes with sex-reassignment on gender neutral
children (children born with ambiguous genitalia).
Dr money saw Brenda at regular intervals & she
received further reconstructive surgery & hormone
treatment to achieve the transition to female
appearance.
 Generalisability: This was a case study of a v.rare
event; therefore, we cannot be sure that other males
in David’s position would have reacted in the same
way.
 Reliability: The study has not been replicated & it is
hard to see how it could be so we do not know of the
results are reliable. However, it was well-controlled
as David/Brenda had an identical twin who acted as
a natural control, so it was possible to compare the
behaviour of genetically identical participants but
who have v.different experiences, i.e., being brought
up as male or female.
 Application to real life: it is important to
understand the mechanisms of gender identity, e.g.,
for child rearing, clinical, social & advertising
purposes.
 Validity: The decision to raise David as Brenda may
have been influenced by the fact that it is more
difficult to construct penis, as opposed to a vagina,
i.e., less to do with genuinely testing a theory, or
what is in the best interests of the participant, but
simply what it is easiest & most practical to do. In
David’s case it was easier, more expedient, to create a
vagina for him & raise him as a girl, it was not
necessarily the most scientifically valid option –
although according to Money’s theory (i.e., if it had
validity) as gender is determined by social
experience after birth, raising David as a female
should have been successful.
Ablatio Penis: Normal male infant sex-reassigned as a girl
(Money, 1975)
 Results: Money reported that at 9 Brenda had a female
gender identity & he predicted that in adulthood she
would have a female sexual life. Although some
masculine traits & tomboyish behaviour were observed,
these were explained as the result of imitating her twin
brother. The reality was v.different. Brenda had many
behavioural & emotional problems throughout her
childhood & because of her profound unhappiness, at the
age of 15 she was told the truth about her circumstances &
allowed to live as a boy. She was reconstructive surgery to
create a penis & became David. David was much happier
living as a male & later married a divorcee, with 3 children
from her previous marriage. Sadly, David’s twin brother
Brian killed himself & after suffering from depression &
his marriage failing, David too committed suicide.
 Conclusion: The initial evidence, as reported by Money,
seemed to suggest that biological gender can be easily
overwritten through surgery, hormone therapy & rearing
experiences: gender identity is undifferentiated at birth,
we are, in psychological terms, born ‘gender neutral’ –
gender is determined by social experience after birth & is
therefore the result of upbringing. However, the reality of
Brenda’s gender reassignment seems to completely
contradict this. Diamond & Sigmundson (1997) reported
the failure of the sex-reassignment experiment on
Brenda. It seems that Money was wrong about gender
identity, at least in the case of sexually unambiguous
individuals, gender identity is biologically determined.
 Ethics: Clearly there are a number of
ethical issues with this study. Money
seems to have ignored the profound
unhappiness of Brenda & claimed that
the sex-reassignment was a success
when clearly it was not & there were
indicators early on that it was not.
Money may have been acting in what
he thought were the best interests of
David, given his own theoretical
beliefs, but it is clear that enormous
stress was placed on David & his
family as a result of his sex-
reassignment. This stress may well
have been a significant factor in both
his & his brother’s suicides. Money
also showed both twins sexually
explicit material to try & strengthen
their gender identities – at their age
this is a dubious practice.
Gottesman & Shields (1966) Schizophrenia & Genes
 Name: As above.
 Aim: To investigate the relative importance of genetic &
environmental influences on the aetiology (causes) of
schizophrenia.
 Method: Records of same sex twins born between 1893 & 1945
& who had survived to age 15 were obtained from the Maudsley
& Bethlem Royal Joint Hospital. A final working sample of 62
individuals was used. The twins were categorised as either
identical (monozygotic twins - from the same egg so have
identical genes), or fraternal twins (dizygotic twins – non-
identical twins, from different eggs, similar genes but not
identical). At least one of the twins had also been diagnosed
with schizophrenia (a v.series clinical condition). The
researchers then analysed the twins clinical condition in a
number of ways: case histories based on self-report &
interviews with parents, semi-structured interviews,
personality test & disordered thinking test & records of
hospitalisation & hospital diagnosis.
 Results: MZ twins had a significantly higher concordance rate
than DZ twins(concordance=where both twins have the same
condition/exhibit the same behaviour) & nearly ¾ of them had
some kind of abnormal behaviour. For DZ twins concordance
rates were lower but were still significantly higher than in the
general public (prevalence in gen. Pop.=1%).
 Conclusion: This research suggests that genes play an
important part in schizophrenia & there is a significant
inherited risk factor for schizophrenia. The stronger the
genetic connection, the greater the risk. As the severity of
schizophrenia differs, & as DZ twins have a lower concordance
rate for schizophrenia, but still higher than normal, this
suggests that the disorder is polygenic (influenced by many
genes). The less genes you have in common the less likely you
mare to suffer from schizophrenia or as severe a form of it.
 Generalisability: Although MZ & DZ twins
where there is a history of schizophrenia present
might not be common, participants were drawn
from a suitably lengthy time period to generate a
sample size large enough to be statistically
representative. (62).
 Reliability: A study by Gottesman (1991)
analysed the results of 40 investigations of
genetic influence & schizophrenia spanning 60
years. Concordance rates for schizophrenia & MZ
twins=48%; for DZ twins=17%. This seems to
replicate & support the findings of the 1966 study.
 Application to real life: Schizophrenia is a
series clinical condition that affects many people
globally; many traits & behaviours, not just
clinical ones, area influenced by genetic
inheritance.
 Validity: The schizophrenia & family
relationships were naturally occurring, not
manipulated or contrived in any way. However,
this study cannot rule out the influence of the
environment on clinical behaviour. Presumably
the twins in the study not only shared genes, but
were also raised in the same or similar
environments, even if just during pre-natal
development (i.e., in the womb). Finally, the
concordance rate is not 100%, even for MZ twins,
as might be expected if schizophrenia was
entirely genetic in origin.
 Ethics: No issues.
Raine et al. (1997) Brain abnormalities in murders
 Name: as above.
 Aim: To investigate patterns of brain activity in the pre-
frontal cortex of murderers compared to a matched sample
of non-murders using Positron Emission Tomography (PET
scan – see research methods).
 Method: An experimental group, consisting of
41participants found guilty of murder or manslaughter but
had pleaded ‘not guilty by reasons of insanity’, were studied.
There were 39 men & 2 women & 6 had a diagnosis of
schizophrenia, the average age was 34. These participants
were matched with a control group, incl. 6 with
schizophrenia. The participants did not take any
medication for the 2 weeks prior to testing. They were the
given PET scan whilst carrying out a continuous
performance visual task for 32 minutes, designed to measure
activity in the frontal lobes.
 Results: Significant differences were found between the
experimental group & the control group in activity in the
pre-frontal cortex, corpus callosum & parts of the limbic
system. The murderers showed lower levels of activity in
these areas. These areas of the brain are associated with
self-control, emotional responses & inhibition of violent
behaviour. The murderers also had lower activity in the
parietal cortex, linked to verbal ability & suggesting lower
educational attainment in the murderers – a possible
contributory factor in their criminal behaviour.
 Conclusion: The areas of the brain with lower activity in the
murderers are linked to lack of fear, lowered self-control,
increased aggression & impulsive behaviours & problems
with controlling & expressing emotions. Problems with
these parts of the brain could indicate a significantly
increased risk of committing extreme violence.
 Generalisability: For the behaviour being studied the
sample was quite representative & quite large.
 Reliability: It was a well-controlled study, the
experimental & control group were well-matched for
sex, age & mental health & none of the participants
took any medication 2 weeks prior to the study, in case
this might have affected the results & performance of
the continuous performance task. Also, PET scans are a
reliable, objective method. Results are quantitative &
replicable, i.e., simply having another PET scan, or
getting more people to undergo the same procedure ion
the PET scanner.
 Application to real life: study was of criminal
behaviour & of those who commit extreme acts of
violence.
 Validity: PET scans are v.precise, objective measures of
brain activity but difficult to interpret accurately. Also
cause & effect can be difficult to verify, I.e., there may
be a relationship between lower brain activity in the pr-
frontal cortex & likelihood of extreme violence, but it
might not necessarily be the cause of this violence.
This research does not take into account social factors
for criminal behaviour, which might be just as
important, if not more important, than biological
factors.
 Ethics: No ethical issues, consent would have been
obtained & no distress was caused (the experimentl
group have already been found guilty so cannot be
caused distress by the thought that they might commit
acts of extreme violence – they already have!).
De Bellis et al. (2001) Sex differences in brain development
 Aim: To investigate sex differences in maturation of the brain , by studying volumes of cerebral grey matter
(cell bodies & synapses) , white matter (axons) & the corpus callosum (links the right & left hemispheres
of the brain) in healthy children & adolescents.
 Procedure/method: A cross-sectional study. 61 male & 57 female children aged 6.9 to 17 years were
assessed on a range of cognitive abilities & matched for cognitive abilities, IQ, socio-economic status &
ethnicity. After being initiated with the procedure using an MRI simulator their brain volumes were
measured using an MRI scanner.
 Results: The volume of grey matter fell significantly with age, especially with females. The volumes of
white matter & the corpus callosum both increased with age, more so in males than females; however, the
only significant increase was in volumes of white matter, the differences between males & females for white
matter & corpus callosum volume were both significant.
 Conclusion: As boys show faster changes (loss of grey matter & increase in white matter & corpus
callosum volume) this indicates that boys’ brains mature faster. One explanation for this might be linked
to sex hormones. Oestrogen (predominantly in females) delays ‘pruning’ (a process where in grey matter
the number of connections between neurones are reduced through the loss of dendrites, thus reducing
grey matter); whereas testosterone (mainly in males) promotes myelination (an increase in white matter
due to myelination - the development of a fatty insulating layer around the axons of neurones helping
neurones to conduct or pass messages quicker). [Fewer but quicker connections between neurones might
be more efficient?] The differences in brain maturation between males & females could help to explain
differences in cognitive abilities between males & females & differences in patterns of development as boys
& girls mature, & also gender-related differences in early-onset developmental disorders, such as autism &
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
 EVALUATION: It was cross-sectional study; a longitudinal study might have been more valid as this would
show maturation over time with the same group to ensure non-developmental variables have been
eliminated, such as differences in experiences between children of different ages accounting for the
variation & not purely age & development. However, MRI scans are v.precise, objective & reliable measures
of brain structure. Environmental/learning factors may explain some of the differences in brain structure
between boys & girls.
1 Key issue: Autism; transgender operations;
drugs & pregnancy; mental illness
Is autism an ‘extreme male brain’
condition? OR:

Are transgender operations ethical?

OR:

Is it safe to use drugs during

pregnancy? OR:

Biological Psychology & mental

health issues.
Key issue: Is autism an ‘extreme male brain’
condition?
 Autism is a developmental disorder which affects a child’s ability to interact & build
relationships with others, including parents. (See Handout on Autism.)
 It is a life-long condition, usually diagnosed at about 3 or 4, but present form birth.
 Autistic symptoms can be quite broad: there is an autistic spectrum, ranging from severely
autistic with v.low level functioning to Asperger’s Syndrome, which is relatively high
functioning, few obvious problems & such children can be educated in main stream schools.
Very rarely some people with autism might have an unusual talent or ability, e..g, musical,
mathematical, artistic; however, this is v.rare (such individuals are referred to as autistic
savants – in the past idiot savants).
 Symptoms of autism include:
 Poor, non-existent, or lower than normal language abilities (sometimes might be initially
misdiagnosed as deaf due to poor language skills).
 Low levels of imaginative thinking
 Problems with relationships, building social relationships, social interaction (eye contact,
recognising social cues etc.)
 Stereotypical behaviour – repeating the same behaviour or words over & over again; a
preference for order & organisation.
 A resistance to change.
Key issue: Is autism an ‘extreme male brain’
condition?
 Baron-Cohen et al. (200%0 suggest that the brain structure of an autistic person is an
‘exaggeration’ of the brain structure of a normal male. This reinforces the influence of
biological factors on development, thinking & behaviour (i.e., on psychological
development).
 Male brain structure is different to female brain structure: the male brain tends to be
heavier & the autistic brain is heavier again (Bailey et al., 1994).
 Male brains tend to grow more quickly than female brains during early development & in
autistic children this growth is even more rapid.
 Normal males have a smaller corpus callosum (linking 2 hemispheres of brain); in autistic
individuals they are smaller again.
 The amygdala (regulating emotional responses) is slightly larger in males & abnormally large
in children with autism.
 Male brain function tends to be slightly different to females: males are generally better at
spatial tasks & autistic people seem to be better than average at such tasks too.
 Males develop language more slowly than females, as do autistic children (some never
develop language).
 Males tend to demonstrate more brain lateralisation than females, especially with regard to
functions such as language, women tend to show more bilateral activity in linguistic tasks
(i.e., use both hemispheres). If the ‘extreme male brain’ theory is to be believed we might
expect autistic individuals to show even greater lateralisation than normal: HOWEVER, they
do not.
Key issue: Is autism an ‘extreme male brain’
condition?
 Male hormones affect development: there are 3x more autistic males than females,
suggesting a link between male hormones & autism.
 Males are clearly exposed to greater amounts of male hormones than females, as male
hormones are mainly produced by the testes. However, a low level of male hormones are
produced by the adrenal glands in females, so there is still some influence of male hormones
on female development, i.e., there is still some possibility of male brain structure developing
in females. This would account for the fact that autism is not exclusively a male condition.
 There is a v.strong concordance rate for autism in MZ twins, between 60-90%, but only 5% for
DZ twins, suggesting a strong genetic component to autism.
 There may also be other biological factors affecting autism, such as faulty neurotransmitters,
& problems with enzymes which might prevent normal brain development.
 Explanations of behaviour need to consider ethical implications, I.e., how the explanation
might affect those concerned. If research suggests that autism is an ‘extreme male brain’ &
mainly genetic parents are in no way responsible for the condition & should not blame
themselves; some years ago some researchers suggested that schizophrenia was the result of
poor parenting & dysfunctional family communication patterns – effectively ‘blaming’ the
parents: later research rejected this assumption. This illustrates the importance of using
psychology to explain real-life conditions.
Key issue: Are transgender operations ethical?
 A transgender operation involves changing the physical sex of a person, e.g., removing or
creating a penis or vagina & feminising or masculinising an individual through hormone
treatment.
 Such operations are performed on adults who may feel that they have been into the wrong body
& feel unhappy with their sex (gender identity disorders). Clearly such operations are not
undertaken lightly: an individual wishing to undergo such a procedure would need to have seen
a psychiatrist &/or clinical psychologist & have lived as member of the gender they want to be
re-assigned to for 2 years. However, there are no real ethical issues if an adult chooses to
undergo such a procedure & has given their consent & been fully informed of all the
risks/issues involved.
 However, the case of David Reimer & other males raised as girls is different. In many cases,
such as David Reimer, their sex was re-assigned when they were v.young, usually on medical
advice which their parents accept. It is usually conducted on infants, or children when the sex
organs are unrecognisable as male or female, or where complete sex organs of both sexes are
present (true hermaphrodites – see also pseudo-hermaphrodites).
 Reiner & Gaerhart studied 16 genetic males born without (or with v.small) penises, but normal
testes & XY chromosome. 14 were raised as girls after surgery. The majority felt as if they were
males, suggesting that such surgery & being raised as girls is not sufficient to change gender
identity – raising doubts as to whether such surgery should be performed. The poor success
rate for males being ‘changed’ & raised as girls & the unhappiness caused to such individuals, as
illustrated by the case of David Reimer, suggests some ethical flaws in this type of procedure.
Should parents & doctors have the power to make such decisions?
 It is often easier to create a working vagina & feminise a body than it is to create a working
penis. It is this practical issue which drive such decisions (see case of David Reimer), rather
than anything else. For transgender operations to stand the best chance of success & for
created sex organs to be functional, such surgery has to be performed in infancy when the body
is still developing.
Key issue: Drugs & pregnancy
 Is is safe to use drugs during pregnancy?
 In the 1950s & 60s many pregnant women were give a drug called Thalidomide to reduce morning sickness.
It had been successfully trialled on rabbits with no ill effects. However, over 400 babies of women who had
taken this drug were born with severe physical disabilities, including missing or malformed limbs.
 Evidence also shows that women using Thalidomide during pregnancy had a greater than normal chance
of giving birth to a child with autism. (Thalidomide is now used a treatment for some forms of cancer.)
 As a result of the Thalidomide scandal, many women are now reluctant to take any drugs at all during
pregnancy. Drugs induced during pregnancy will affect the developing foetus as mother & foetus are
linked through the placental. Drugs can also affect the passage of nutrients from the mother to the foetus
, or may affect the health of the mother so also having a detrimental affect on the health of the foetus.
 For obvious reasons no clinical trial of drugs are carried out on pregnant women so the affects of drugs on
the developing foetus are not always precisely known. However, sometimes it can be better for a mother to
take drugs/medication during pregnancy, e.g., anti-epilepsy medication – the risks from such medication
might be less than the risks of suffering a seizure during pregnancy.
 Smoking & pregnancy: smoking during pregnancy often leads to babies who are smaller & more prone to
birth defects affecting the face, brain & heart.
 Alcohol & pregnancy: Can lead to Foetal alcohol syndrome, symptoms include poor growth both before &
after birth; malformed head & brain resulting from poor growth (often large heads & eyes unusually far
apart); possible facial defects; & mental retardation. The brain weight of adult rats was affected if they
had been exposed to alcohol during their development in the womb (Goodlett, Marcussen & West, 1990).
 Using sex hormones during pregnancy can affect normal sex organ development in a foetus.
Key issue: Mental Health.
 Neurotransmitters (see definitions), as well as genes, can have a profound affect on metal
health.
 One explanation of schizophrenia is the ‘dopamine hypothesis’. Dopamine is a
neurotransmitter that is stimulated by amphetamines & cocaine. People who take excessive
amounts of these drugs can have symptoms similar to schizophrenia – suggesting some
forms of schizophrenia are linked to excessive amounts of dopamine (cocaine,
amphetamine, cannabis psychosis).
 Parkinson’s Disease is thought to be linked to dopamine. One of the functions of dopamine
is to regulate deliberate movements; a lack of dopamine production in Parkinson sufferers
leads to difficulty producing movement & the patient becomes v.rigid. One drug used to
treat Parkinson’s is L-DOPA, which is converted into dopamine in the body & helps the
patient regain spontaneous movement. Some side effects of L-DOPA are symptoms
associated with schizophrenia.
 Another important neurotransmitter is serotonin (linked to mood). Clinical/unipolar
depression is linked to a lack of serotonin. One treatment are ante-depressant drugs, some
are called SSRIs (selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors). These drugs prevent serotonin
molecules being re-absorbed by the post-synaptic terminals & receptor sites which released
the serotonin in the first place. This means there is more serotonin in the synaptic gap
which will cross the gap & attach itself to the pre-synaptic receptor sites, reducing the
symptoms of depression. (Serotonin is also linked to anorexia).
 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCCD) is thought to involve both serotonin & dopamine.
One drug used to control is Escitalopram. This works in a similar to SSRIs described above.
Key issue: Mental Health.

 Evaluation: The dopamine hypothesis can only explain some of the

symptoms of schizophrenia, not all of them, so it is not a complete
explanation.
 Anti-psychotic drugs which reduce dopamine levels & are used to treat
schizophrenia can be v.effective so dopamine must be linked to
schizophrenia in some way. However, these drugs start working on the
brain immediately, but the symptoms take a few weeks to dissipate.
 Drug treatments only tend to treat the symptoms not the causes.
 Drug treatments can have side-effects & can lead to tolerance &
addiction.
 Is the serotonin the cause or effect of depression, i.e, does too little
serotonin lead to sad thoughts & depression; or do sad thoughts &
depression lead to less serotonin being produced?
Research Methods/How Science Works
& Practical
 Twin & adoption studies
 Brain scanning – MRI & PET
 Lesion studies using animals
 Animal experiments
 The Practical: A quasi experiment – using a
Mann-Whitney test.
Research Methods: Twin Studies
 Twin studies: One way to study the
influence of genes & the nature/nurture
debate is to study the concordance rates of
MZ & DZ twins (concordance=if 1 twin has
the condition, displays the behaviour/trait,
will the other twin).
 If there is a high concordance rate for any
traits between MZ twins, or if the
concordance rate is higher for MZ twins
than for DZ twins, this suggests a genetic
cause.
 Even though twins are quite unusual they
have generated a large volume of data &
they provide a v.useful way of studying the
influence of genes.
 MZ twins are often treated in a v.similar
fashion (as is the case to a lesser extent with
DZ twins), so similarities in behaviour
between MZ twins might be down to
nurture & sharing a similar environment,
experiences & treatment etc.
 The usefulness of data from twin studies
depends on the instruments used to collect
data, e.g., personality or IQ tests, such
measures often have questionable validity &
reliability.
 Most people are not twins, so the results of
investigations of twins may not be
representative of the development of non-
twins, so the findings may not be
generalisable to the development of other
children & adults.
 MZ twins share the same pre-natal
environment, so similarities could be down
to congenital factors, not genetic ones.
Research Methods: Adoption Studies
 Studying children who have been adopted  Adoption studies provide the most direct comparison
of the influence of nature V. nurture because they
is another way of looking at whether
isolate the influence of the environment from those of
behavioural & other psychological traits genetics, i.e., adopted MZ twins & adopted children
are the result of nature will be raised in a different environment to their
(genetic/biological factors) or nurture closest genetic relatives, but behavioural similarities
(environmental factors). with separated twins & biological parents will indicate
a strong genetic influence on traits.
 Adoption studies can involve MZ twins  Adoption studies can investigate a wide range of
that have been brought up in different variables using varied samples & methods, e.g., trans-
environments – to see if despite these racial adoptions & meta-analyses.
differences their behavioural &  Children who are adopted often share a v.similar
psychological traits are similar; or simply environment to their family members, e.g., they are
often adopted within a 30 mile radius of their
by comparing children’s behavioural & biological family; thus environmental differences
psychological traits with their adoptive & between adopted children & their biological families
biological parents. might be less dramatic than might be assumed, e.g.,
with separated twins & other adopted children
adoption agencies often try & place them in similar
families to their biological families/to their twin, so
that their developmental experiences are as alike as
possible.
 The number of MZ twins reared apart is minimal, so
sample sizes tend to be small. Most people are not
adopted so, by definition, people who are adopted are
not representative of the whole population, making it
sometimes difficult to generalise results.
Research Methods: Lesion studies using animals
 Lesioning involves making an incision, or
cut, in a specific part of the brain. E.g., in
rats a lesion may be made in the
hippocampus (linked to memory & spatial
awareness) & the rat then placed in a maze
it had previously been trained to
negotiate. If the rat, after the lesioning,
can no longer negotiate the maze, or
struggles to do so, we can assume that the
hippocampus is indeed linked to memory
in some way.
 See The Learning Approach for arguments
for & against using animals in
experiments.
 NB., Bateson (1986) developed a 3-
dimensional graph, or decision cube, to
assess whether to use animals in
experiments. The 3 criteria are:
 Quality of research (high or low)
 Certainty of medical benefit (high or low)
 Degree of animal suffering (high or low)
 The first 2 should be high & the last
relatively low to justify animal research.
 Clearly lesioning studies are not possible on
humans because they result in permanent
damage.
 Studying animals in this way gives you greater
experimental control, e.g., over the
environment, task, type of damage inflicted
etc. Humans may accidentally suffer such
brain damage but the researcher will not know
the participant before the damage so will not
be able to know for certain if the reduced brain
function was the result of the damage or
existed before the damage. With animal
lesioning no such problems exist. Also
humans with brain damage relevant for
psychological research purposes are quite rate,
making reliability & generalisability a problem;
again, not a problem if studying animals.
 Animal responses will be completely naïve,
avoiding demand characteristics.
 Animal experiments require a v.high degree of
care making animal research in some ways
quite costly.
 Can we always generalise brain function from
animals to humans?
Research Methods: Brain Scanning
 A Computerised Axial Tomography (CAT) scan is a
giant X-ray that takes X-ray ‘slices’ through the brain,
to reveal objects in the brain, such as tumours, blood
clots etc.
 A Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan
provides a detailed structural image of the brain,
removing the need to cut through any tissue. It
produces a powerful magnet field which causes
positively charged particles in hydrogen atoms (called
protons) to act like compass needles & spin or point
in a particular direction when placed in the MRI
scanner. Radio waves are then passed through the
head by the scanner; as the protons return to their
original positions they emit radio waves that are
detected by the scanner. Different areas of the brain
emit differing amounts of radio waves because of
variations of hydrogen concentrations in different
parts of the brain. Different densities appear as
shades of grey on the image; lots of hydrogen atoms
appear white, v.few appear dark. A v.detailed cross-
sectional image of the brain is generated.
 A Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan is a
way of seeing a brain at ‘work’. Patients are injected
with glucose or water that has a radioactive trace
attached to it. During brain activity brain cells
uptake the oxygen in the water or glucose. The
radioactive tracer attached to the water or glucose
begins to decay emitting a small amount of
radioactivity that is detected by the scanner,
indicating what parts of the brain are most active
during a particular activity. (The radioactive tracer
takes about 1 min to reach the brain after being
injected & 10-15mins to decay.)
 Scanning is a non-invasive procedure so does not
cause pain & so can be conducted on live humans.
 Structural scans can be used to identify anomalies
in the brain, such as those resulting from a stroke
or tumour. They can also identify what parts of
the brain are most active during particular
cognitive activities, e.g., allowing researchers to
identify regions of the brain connected to
language, memory & emotion.
 Most scanning techniques restrict the range of
activities that a participant can perform &,
therefore, that a researcher can study because the
participant has to lie still in a large, noisy scanning
machine.
 Functional MRI scans are v.accurate but we still
cannot isolate the exact moment & location of
brain activity, so we cannot track a thought
through the brain at the moment.
 Many scanners (e.g., PET) rely on radioactivity or
X-rays so participants’ exposure to the procedure
ahs to be limited.
 Scanning can be a v.reliable technique as the data
is objective, the procedure can be well-controlled
& repeated.
 It lacks some validity as participants may not be
able to think as naturally as normal as they are in a
large scanning machine.
 It is expensive & requires a high level of expertise
to interpret the data.
The Practical:
 The Biological Approach Practical must be a quasi experiment:
 Quasi experiment: this is a normal experiment but the participants cannot be
allocated to the experimental conditions randomly; however, the IV is still
manipulated & controlled by the researcher so it is not a natural experiment. E.g.,
in this research you will be comparing male & female performance on a cognitive
task, the gender of your participants is fixed & not random, it is a naturally
occurring variable, making the study a quasi-experiment.
 It should be a laboratory experiment, as this allows you greater control over the
variables.
 Your variables should be well-operationalised – shapes, a form of the Stroop task,
non sense letters, rhymes etc.
 Hypothesis: something investigating cognitive performance differences between
males & females, possibly suggested by gender & brain lateralisation.
 Sampling: At least 10 males & 10 females to ensure that a statistically significant
result can be obtained.
 Experimental Design: As there are 2 distinct groups of participants – males &
females – the study will be an Independent Measures (groups) Design.
The Practical:
 The Task: as males are thought to be better at spatial awareness, a matched shape experiment
might be appropriate. The participants are shown a range of shapes; they are then given a
choice of 4 shapes where 1 of them will be the opposite shape to the each of their shapes they
have previously studied.
 Alternatively you could compare performance on the Stroop task, or a variation of it, between
males & females (again considering brain lateralisation & possible differences in cognitive,
semantic processing). Participants could also be contrasted for ability to decide if pairs of
non-words rhyme (e.g., ROOZ & TEWS), or whether arrays of upper & lower case letters
contain the same sequence (e.g., gDgD & GdgD).
 Data: the data will be ratio, i.e., you will be measuring the number of right or wrong answers,
or time in seconds to complete a task. The gap between each performance will be identical
(not a rank or order) & you cannot get a score below 0, e.g., - wrong answers or – seconds.
 Results: Establish mean.media & mode results from the data & construct a bar graph
displaying this data.
 Inferential statistical test: You will also need to carry out a Mann-Whitney test: a Mann-
Whitney test is required because the level of data is interval/ratio, you are looking for a
difference – not a correlation between the groups & the design is independent measures
 Conclusion: You will need to decide on your level of significance, based on whether there
has been much previous supporting evidence for your experimental hypothesis (p<0.05
greater room for error, as with new theory; or p<0.01 less room for error as lots of research
already predicted a certain result). You will need to decide if your hypothesis will be 1 or 2
tailed, & to conduct a Mann-Whitney test how many participants you have, referred to as n
(number of participants in each condition). To work out if your results are significant the
Mann-Whitney test produces a U score, this U score, your observed score, must be smaller or
equal to the critical value (as indicated on a critical value table).
The Practical:
 You should write up your study under the following
headings:
 Validity: was the task valid?
 Reliability: could the task be easily replicated; if
conducted again would similar results be obtained, or
would extraneous variables affect the results?
 Generalisability: was the sample size big enough,
representative of the target population?
 Credibility: was this a credible experiment, or was too
contrived & artificial?
 NB., see The Psychodynamic & Learning Approach:
How to write up a study/research.