ResearchMethodology Week02

RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
(Business Research Methods)
Week 2
29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 1
What is Research? (1)
There are many accepted definitions for the term

“research”, for example:
Research is an active, diligent and systematic process of

inquiry in order to discover, interpret or revise facts,
events, behaviours, or theories, or to make practical
applications with the help of such facts, laws or theories.
The term ‘research’ is also used to describe the collection
of information about a particular subject
(Encyclopedia Wikipedia)
What is Research? (2)
Other insightful definitions of “research” are:
 Systematic, intensive, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge,

usually employing the techniques of hypothesis and experiment, whose purpose
is to reveal new facts, theories, or principles
 Means a systematic investigation, including research development, testing and

evaluation, designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge
 Systematic study directed toward more complete scientific knowledge or

understanding of the subject studied
Types and Scope of Research
BASIC TYPES OF RESEARCH APPLIED
Non-Specificity Specificity
Research is undertaken in numerous scientific disciplines, e.g.:
 Natural / Physical Sciences

 Social Sciences
 Management Sciences
 Humanities
The Dimensions of Research
Theories
Concepts Deductive
Reasoning
RESEARCH
Propositions
Scientific Method Inductive

Reasoning
Hypotheses
Empiricism
What is a Theory? (1)
Zikmund (p. 41) has defined a theory as “a coherent set of general
propositions, used as principles of explanation of the amount of the
apparent relationships of certain observed phenomona”
Concepts (or constructs) are the basic building blocks of theory

development. A concept (or construct) is a generalized idea about a
class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that have been
given a name. A concept (or construct) may vary in terms of the level of
abstraction
Examples: Productivity, Leadership, Morale, Assets, Inflation
What is a Theory? (2)
A proposition is a statement concerned with the relationship between concepts. It
asserts a universal connection and logical linkage between concepts. Propositions
are at a higher level of abstraction than concepts
Example: Smoking is injurious to health
Hypotheses are propositions which are empirically testable. They are usually
concerned with the relationships between variables
Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double the production
The Abstraction Ladder
Theory Abstract Level
Propositions
Levels of
Abstraction
Concepts / Constructs
Observations of Objects,
Events and Occurrences (Reality) Empirical Level
Qualities of a Good Theory (1)
“A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two

requirements. It must accurately describe a large
class of observations on the basis of a model
that contains only a few arbitrary elements. And
it must make definite predictions about the result
of future observations”
Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time, 1988
Qualities of a Good Theory (2)
Often, competing theories are put forth to explain certain phenomena.
One cannot really be 100% certain that a given theory is correct
because, no matter on how many occasions the results of experiments
agree with the theory, there may come an occasion when some do not
Theories must be:

Objective
Verifiable (i.e. within the accepted margins of error)
Falsifiable / disprovable
Good theories must understand, explain and predict
Example of a Theory: Voluntary Job Turnover
Labour market conditions, number of
organizations, personal characteristics,
And other partial determinants
of ease of movement
Perceived ease of movement (e.g.

Job Performance
Expectation of finding alternatives,

unsolicited opportunities) Intention Voluntary
To Job
Quit Turnover
Perceived desirability of movement
(e.g. job satisfaction)
Equity of pay, job complexity, participation

In decision-making, and other partial Zikmund, pp. 44 - 45
Determinants of desirability of movement
Deductive Reasoning
Theory
Using deductive reasoning, one

starts with a given theory as the
Hypotheses basis for which we develop
hypotheses and then confirm
these with specific
data acquired using observation
or experimentation
Observation
(Is our theory valid or not?)
Confirmation
Inductive Reasoning
Observation
Using inductive reasoning, one

starts with a specific observation
Pattern
as the basis for which we develop
a general pattern and tentative
hypothesis as the foundation
of a theory
Tentative Hypothesis
Theory
The Scientific Method
The “scientific method” is basically an overarching perspective
on how scientific investigations should be undertaken. It can, in
effect, be considered as a complete set of principles and
methods that help researchers in all scientific disciplines obtain
valid results for their research studies, and which includes the
provision of clear and universally accepted guidelines for
acquiring, evaluating and communicating information in the
context of a research study
The goals of scientific research are, broadly speaking, to

understand, explain and predict
Elements of the Scientific Method
 Empirical Approach
 Observation
 Questions
 Hypotheses
 Experiments
 Analysis
 Conclusion
 Replication
(Empirical Approach)
Evidence-based approach. The guiding principle

behind all research conducted in accordance
with the scientific method
Data derived from direct, systematic and careful

observation and experimentation (as opposed to
speculation, intuition, opinions, hunches, gut
feeling)
(Observation)
Awareness of the real / physical / social world in which
we exist. This, in turn, gives rise to questions as the
basis for research studies or investigations
Operational Definitions – Ensures consistency when

researchers talk about or are interested in undertaking or
replicating research on the same phenomenon.
Example: What is “exercise”?
(Questions)
Making an answerable question out of a research idea. The
question must be answered using available and established
scientific research techniques and procedures. Scientific
Analysis should not be attempted on questions which cannot
be answered
Example of an answerable question: Can regular exercising

reduce an individual’s cholesterol level?
Example of a (currently) unanswerable question: Is time

travel possible?
(Hypotheses)
Hypotheses attempt to explain phenomena of interest. A hypothesis is a
proposition which is empirically testable. It usually seeks to explain
relationships between variables, and predict, and must be falsifiable
Typical hypotheses structures:
Conditional - If Condition X is fulfilled, then Outcome Y will result

Correlational - The value of Variable B is observed to be related with
changes in the value of Variable A
Causal – The value of Variable ψ determines the value of Variable ξ
(Experiments)
Experiments are basically about measuring phenomena

and collecting accurate and reliable data which are used
for analysis and evaluation
Accuracy – Correctness of the Measurement

Reliability – Consistency of the Measurement
(Analysis)
Analysis is about the use of qualitative or quantitative tools and
techniques to process data
Quantitative tools and techniques are considered more

desirable (objective) than qualitative tools and techniques
Statistical analysis is typically used to quantitatively analyze

data acquired in research studies
(Conclusions)
Based on the results of the analysis conducted, and used to
support or refute a hypothesis
When undertaking research, conclusions should only be

based on the available data and not broadened to include
statements which are not supported by the data
Example: If the research analysis shows that two variables are

correlated (related), do not assert also that a causal
relationship exists between them
(Replication)
The purpose of replication is to ensure that if the same
research study is conducted with different participants (i.e.
researchers, research subjects), then the same results are
achieved
Replication establishes the reliability of a research study’s

conclusions
Conclusions are often based on the results of one research

study (aberration effect) which may not be accurate

ResearchMethodology Week02

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RESEARCH

There are many accepted definitions for the term

Research is an active, diligent and systematic process of

Other insightful definitions of “research” are:

 Systematic, intensive, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge,

 Means a systematic investigation, including research development, testing and

 Systematic study directed toward more complete scientific knowledge or

BASIC TYPES OF RESEARCH APPLIED

Research is undertaken in numerous scientific disciplines, e.g.:

 Natural / Physical Sciences

Scientific Method Inductive

Concepts (or constructs) are the basic building blocks of theory

Examples: Productivity, Leadership, Morale, Assets, Inflation

Example: Smoking is injurious to health

Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double the production

Theory Abstract Level

“A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two

Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time, 1988

Theories must be:

Good theories must understand, explain and predict

Perceived ease of movement (e.g.

Expectation of finding alternatives,

Equity of pay, job complexity, participation

Using deductive reasoning, one

Using inductive reasoning, one

The goals of scientific research are, broadly speaking, to

Evidence-based approach. The guiding principle

Data derived from direct, systematic and careful

Operational Definitions – Ensures consistency when

Example of an answerable question: Can regular exercising

Example of a (currently) unanswerable question: Is time

Typical hypotheses structures:

Conditional - If Condition X is fulfilled, then Outcome Y will result

Experiments are basically about measuring phenomena

Accuracy – Correctness of the Measurement

Quantitative tools and techniques are considered more

Statistical analysis is typically used to quantitatively analyze

When undertaking research, conclusions should only be

Example: If the research analysis shows that two variables are

Replication establishes the reliability of a research study’s

Conclusions are often based on the results of one research

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