Introduction to

Mechanical Engineering
(ME 100)
Chapter: 4
Materials and Stresses

Engr. Asad Islam 1

 Learning Objectives
 Identify how a mechanical component is loaded in tension,
compression, or shear, and calculate the stress present
 Sketch “stress–strain curve”, and use it to describe how a
material responds to the applied loads
 Explain the material properties “elastic modulus” and “yield
strength”
 Understand the differences between elastic and plastic
responses of materials and between their ductile and brittle
behaviors
 Discuss some of the properties and uses for metals and their
alloys, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials
 Apply the concept of “factor of safety” to the design of
mechanical components that are subjected to tension or 2shear
stress
 Statics and
Forces
Materials and
Stresses

3
 Overview
 Mechanical engineers design hardware so that it shouldn’t
break during its use
 It can carry the forces acting on it reliably and safely
 Aircraft Wings-carry lots of loads!
 By applying the properties of force to systems we can
calculate the magnitudes and directions of forces that act
on certain structures and machines
 Knowing those forces alone, however, is not enough
information to decide whether a certain piece of hardware
will be strong enough and not fail in its task

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 Overview
 By “fail” or “failure,” we not only mean that the hardware
will not break, but also that it will not stretch or bend so
much as to become significantly distorted
 A 5-kN force, for instance, might be large enough to break
a small bolt or to bend a shaft so much that it would
wobble and not spin smoothly
 A larger-diameter shaft or one that is made from a higher-
grade material might very well be able to support that
force without incurring any damage
 Circumstances for a mechanical component to break,
stretch, or bend depend not only on the forces applied to it,
but also on its dimensions and the properties of the 5
material from which it is made
 Overview
 These considerations give rise to the concept of stress as a
measure of the intensity of a force applied over a certain
area
 Conversely, the strength of a material describes its ability to
support and withstand the stress applied to it
 Engineers compare the stress present in a component to the
strength of its material in order to determine whether the
design is satisfactory
 In this chapter, we will discuss some of the properties of
engineering materials and examine the stresses that can
develop within them
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 Overview
 Tension, compression, and shear stress are quantities that
engineers calculate when they relate the dimensions of a
mechanical component to the forces acting on it
 These stresses are then compared to the material’s
physical properties to determine whether failure is
expected to occur
 When the strength exceeds the stress, we expect that the
structure or machine component will be able to carry the
forces without incurring damage
 Engineers conduct these types of force, stress, materials,
and failure analyses while they design products
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 Tension and Compression

 The type of stress that is

most readily visualized
and useful to develop
intuition about materials
and stresses is called
tension and compression

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 Tension and Compression
 Figure shows a round rod that
is held fixed at its left end and
force F that pulls on the right
end
 Before the force is applied, the
rod has original length L,
diameter d, and cross-sectional
𝒅𝟐
area 𝑨 = 𝝅
𝟒
 As the force F is gradually
applied, the rod stretches along
its length by the amount ΔL
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 Tension and Compression
 Diameter of the rod shrinks by
a small amount due to an effect
known as Poisson’s
contraction
 Change in diameter Δd is
smaller and usually less
noticeable than the lengthwise
stretch ΔL
 If the force is not too great, the
rod will return to its original
diameter and length ( just like a
spring) when F is removed 10
 Tension and Compression
 If the rod is not permanently
deformed after F has been applied,
the stretching is said to occur
elastically
 The force could have been great
enough that the rod would be
deformed permanently or plastically
 Imagine slicing through the rod at
some interior point
 Rod’s right-hand end and an
equivalent internal force on the
segment’s left hand end that
balances F 11
 Tension and Compression
 Rod is formed of a continuous solid
material so the internal force will not be
concentrated at a point as depicted by
the force vector arrow
 Influence of the force will be spread out
and smeared over the rod’s cross
section
 This process is the basic idea behind
stresses in mechanical components
 Stress is essentially an internal force
that has been distributed over the area
of the rod’s cross section
𝑭
𝝈=
𝑨 12
 Tension and Compression
 When the stress tends to lengthen the
rod, it is called tension 𝝈 > 0
 When the rod is shortened, the stress
is called compression 𝝈 < 0
 Similar to the pressure within a liquid
or gas, stress is also interpreted as a
force that has been distributed over an
area
 Stress and pressure have the same
dimensions
 In the SI, the derived unit of stress is
the “pascal” (pa) 𝟏 𝑷𝒂 = 𝟏 𝑵ൗ 𝟐 𝟏 𝒑𝒔𝒊 = 𝟏 𝒍𝒃ൗ 13
𝒎 𝒊𝒏𝟐
 Example 4.2
 The U-bolt is used to attach the body (formed with I-beam
construction) of a commercial moving van to its chassis (formed from
hollow box channel). The U-bolt is made from a 10-mm-diameter rod,
and the nuts on it are tightened until the tension in each straight
section of the U-bolt is 4 kN. (a) Show how forces are transferred
through this assembly by drawing free body diagrams of the U-bolt
and its nuts, the body and chassis stack, and the clamping plate. (b) In
the units of MPa, calculate the tensile stress in a straight section of the
U-bolt.

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U Bolt: FBD

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Body and Chassis Stack: FBD

16
Clamping Plate: FBD

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 Strain
 While stress is related to the
intensity of a force’s application, the
engineering quantity called strain
measures the amount that the rod
stretches
 The elongation ΔL is one way to
describe how the rod lengthens when
F is applied
 Has length of the rod got any
Because strain is a
connection with elongation ΔL ?
ratio of lengths, it has
 Shorter rod would stretch by a no units
smaller amount It is generally very
 Strain is defined as the amount of small expressed either
∆𝑳
elongation that occurs per unit of the 𝝐 = as a decimal quantity
rod’s original length 𝑳 18
or as a percentage
 Material Response
 Deformation and recovery of elastic materials
under load, was studied by the eminent 17th-
century scientist/engineer Robert Hooke
 “the power of any spring is in the same
proportion with the tension thereof”
 Note that Hooke used the term “power” for what
we today call “force” [𝑭 = 𝒌𝐗] F is the applied
force, X is the displacement or change in length
ΔL, k is the spring constant
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 Material Response
 F versus ΔL graph for different rods
 The lines on these graphs have
different slopes (or stiffness)
depending on the values of d and L
 For a given force, longer rods and ones
with smaller cross sections stretch
more than the other rods
 Despite the fact that the rods are made
from the same material, they would
appear to be quite different from one
another in the context of the F-versus-
ΔL graph
 Rods would behave in an identical
manner when their stretching is
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described by stress and strain curve
 Material Response
 Within the elastic limit (i.e.
the elastic deformation
region), stress σ is
proportional to strain ε
 While the stiffness depends
on the rod’s dimensions,
the stress–strain
relationship is a property of
the material alone and is
independent of the test
specimen’s size
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 Material Response
 An idealized stress–strain
curve for a typical structural
quality steel
 The stress–strain diagram is
broken down into two regions
 The low-strain elastic region
 The high-strain plastic region
 For strains below the
proportional limit (point A),
we can see from the diagram
that stress and strain are
proportional to one another 22
 Material Response
 Stress and strain satisfy the 𝝈 = 𝑬𝜺
relationship Where E is called elastic modulus, or
 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 ≈ 210 𝐺𝑃𝐴 ≈ 30𝑀𝑝𝑠𝑖 Young’s modulus
𝑭 ∆𝑳
 𝐸𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚 ≈ 70 𝐺𝑃𝐴 ≈ We know: 𝝈 = ; 𝝐 =
𝑨 𝑳
10𝑀𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑭𝑳
∆𝑳 =
 Elastic modulus of 𝑬𝑨
𝑭 = 𝒌𝐗, substituting for F, and
aluminum is lower than that knowing X is same as ∆𝑳
of steel by a factor of three 𝑬𝑨
𝒌=
𝑳

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 Poisson’s Ratio
 After a rod is stretched, its diameter will also contract by a slight
amount
 Conversely, the diameter would enlarge slightly if a compressive
force is applied
 This cross-sectional effect is known as Poisson’s contraction or
expansion
 Represents a dimensional change that occurs perpendicular to the
direction of the applied force
 The material property that quantifies the contraction or expansion of a
cross section is Poisson’s ratio
 Represented by ν (the lowercase Greek character nu). It is defined
by changes in the rod’s diameter Δd and length ΔL
∆𝑳
∆𝑑 = -νd 24
𝑳
 Materials Properties
 The point B on stress–strain
diagram, is called the elastic
limit
 Further Loading between
points A and B, the material
continues to behave
elastically, but the stress and
strain are no longer
proportional
 As the load increases beyond
B, the material begins to show
a permanent set
 Yielding starts to occur in the 25
region between B and C
 Materials Properties
 The value of stress in region
B–C defines the material
property called the yield
strength 𝑺𝒚
 As the load is even further
increased beyond point C, the
stress grows to the ultimate
strength 𝑺𝒖 at point D
 Represents the largest
stress that the material is
capable of sustaining
 As loading continues, the stress actually decreases, owing to
a reduction in the rod’s cross-sectional area, until the sample
26
eventually fractures at point E
 Materials Properties
 Stress–strain curves are measured
on a device called a materials
testing machine

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 Materials Properties
 Stress–strain curves are measured
on a device called a materials
testing machine
 A measured stress– strain curve
for a sample of structural steel

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 Materials Properties
 Stress–strain curves are measured
on a device called a materials
testing machine
 A measured stress– strain curve
for a sample of structural steel
 Magnified to highlight the low
strain proportional and yielding
regions

29
 Materials Properties
 Stress–strain curves are measured
on a device called a materials
testing machine
 A measured stress– strain curve
for a sample of structural steel
 Magnified to highlight the low
strain proportional and yielding
regions
 A measured stress– strain curve of
an aluminum sample

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Elastic Modulus and Weight
Density of Selected Metals

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Ultimate and Yield Strengths
of Selected Metals

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 Shear
 Shear stress develops when a force tends to
slice or cut through a structure or machine
component
 Shear differs from tension and compression in
that the stress is oriented in the same plane as
the rod’s cross section
 Shear stress is associated with a force that acts
parallel to the surface of the cross section

33
 Shear
 Force F is applied, the material tends
to be sliced, sheared, or cut along the
two edges that are Shear plane
marked as shear planes in the figure
 A free body diagram of the block is
drawn, equilibrium in the vertical
direction requires
 Two forces V are called shear forces
𝑽 = 𝑭ൗ𝟐
 The shear stress 𝝉 (the lowercase
Greek character tau) is defined as:-
𝑽
𝝉=
𝑨 34
 Example Shear Stress
The threaded rod is subjected to 350 lb of tension, and that
force is transferred through the clevis joint to the fixed base.
In the USCS dimensions of ksi, determine the shear stress
acting within the 3Τ8 in diameter hinge pin.

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 Example Shear Stress
Approach: The threaded rod and the bolts attached to the fixed base
are loaded along their length in tension. The clevis joint’s hinge pin
carries forces perpendicular to its length, and it is loaded in shear. To
determine the magnitude of the shear force, we will draw free body
diagrams of the clevis joint to show how forces are carried within it.

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 Example Shear Stress
Solution:
The 350-lb force is transmitted from the pin to the base through two
shear planes, and V =175 lb
The pin’s cross-sectional area is;

The shear stress is;

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 Example Shear Stress
Discussion:
The forces acting on the clevis joint tend to cleave or cut through the
pin at two locations. The connection is loaded in double shear at the
intensity of 1.584 ksi, which again is much less than the yield strength
of steel, a common material for hinge pins.

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 Engineering Materials
 We have discussed some of the fundamental characteristics
of engineering materials with respect to how they respond
when subjected to stress
 Next step involves deciding what type of material should be
used in a particular design application
 Choosing the correct ones is an important aspect of the
design process
 Main classes of materials encountered in mechanical
engineering are:-
 Metals and their alloys
 Ceramics
 Polymers
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 Composite materials
 Engineering Materials
 Engineers select materials based on their performance,
cost, availability, and past track record in similar
applications
 Production of engineering materials involves the
consumption of natural resources and energy,
environmental concerns are also factors involved in the
selection process
 The more manufacturing steps that are required to
produce the material and form it into a final product, the
greater the material’s cost both economically and
environmentally

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 Engineering Materials
 The full life cycle of
material involves:-
 Use of natural resources
 Fabricating and
manufacturing products
 Transportation
 Using the product
 Disposing of the product or
recycling its materials

41
 Engineering Materials
Metals and Their Alloys
 Metals are relatively stiff and heavy
materials
 Strength of metals can be increased by
mechanical and heat treatments and by
alloying
 Process of adding small amounts of
other carefully chosen elements to a
base metal
 Metals are a good choice to use in
structures and machines that must carry
large forces

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 Engineering Materials
Metals and Their Alloys
 On the negative side, metals are
susceptible to corrosion
 As a result, they can deteriorate and
weaken over time
 Metals are versatile materials because
they can be manufactured by casting,
extrusion, forging, rolling, cutting,
drilling, and grinding
 Some metals, by virtue of their
processing and alloys, have high
degrees of ductility: ability of a
material to withstand a significant
amount of stretching before it fractures
Example: Copper 43
 Engineering Materials
Ceramics
 Think of ceramics, images of coffee
mugs, dinner plates, and artwork
probably come to mind
 Engineering ceramics are used in the
automotive, aerospace, electronics,
telecommunications, etc.
 Applications include high
temperatures, corrosion, electrical
insulation, and wear resistance
 Ceramics are produced by heating
naturally occurring minerals and
chemically treated powders in a
furnace to form a rigid mechanical
component 44
 Engineering Materials
Ceramics
 An important characteristic of
ceramics is that they can withstand
extreme temperatures and insulate
other mechanical components from
heat
 Ceramics are used as thermal barrier
coatings to protect turbine blades from
the high temperatures developed in jet
engines
 The space shuttle used tens of
thousands of lightweight ceramic tiles
to insulate the spacecraft’s structural
frame from temperatures that reached
2300°F during reentry 45
 Engineering Materials
Polymers
 The root of “polymer” is a Greek
word meaning “of many parts”
 Plastics and elastomers are two types
of polymers

46
 Engineering Materials
Polymers
 The root of “polymer” is a Greek
word meaning “of many parts”
 Plastics and elastomers are two types
of polymers
 Polymers are giant molecules formed
as long chains of smaller, building
block molecules
 Rubber and silk are two naturally
occurring macromolecules
 Unlike metals and their
alloys and ceramics, plastics
and elastomers are relatively
soft materials
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 Engineering Materials
Composite Materials
 Mixtures of several materials, and their
formulation can be customized and
tailored for specific applications
 Generally comprised of two
components: the matrix and the
reinforcement
 Matrix is a relatively ductile material
that holds and binds together the
strong reinforcing particles or fibers
embedded in it
 The primary advantages of composites
are that they can be made very stiff,
strong, and lightweight
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 Engineering Materials
Composite Materials
 The widespread usage of fiber-reinforced
composite materials began in the
aerospace industry where weight is of
prime concern
 Sports Industry followed suit

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 Factor of Safety
 From a practical standpoint,
engineers recognize that, despite
their analysis, experiments,
experience, and design codes,
nothing can be built to perfection
 Moreover the mechanical component
could be overloaded or misused

50
 Factor of Safety
 Factor of safety is generally
introduced to account for
unexpected effects, imprecision,
uncertainty, potential assembly
flaws, and material degradation
 The factor of safety is defined as
the ratio of the stress at failure to
the stress during ordinary use
 To guard against ductile yielding it
is often chosen to fall in the range
of 1.5–4.0
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 Factor of Safety
 Engineers define the tensile-stress factor of safety as
𝑆𝑦
 If the factor of safety is greater than one, it is 𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝜎
predicted that the component will not yield
 Yield strength in shear is related to the value in
𝑆𝑦
tension according to the expression 𝑆𝑠𝑦 =
2
 To evaluate the possibility of a ductile material
yielding in shear, we compare stress and strength in 𝑆𝑠𝑦
terms of the shear factor of safety 𝑛𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 =
𝜏
 Choice of Factor of Safety is dependent on a host of
factors
 Design codes set safety standards for many
mechanical products as we saw when discussing
the top ten achievements of the mechanical 52
engineering profession
 Conclusion
𝑭
 Stress:- 𝝈=
𝑨
∆𝑳
 Strain:- 𝝐=
𝑳
 Material Response:- 𝝈 = 𝑬𝜺
𝑭𝑳
 Elongation:- ∆𝑳 =
𝑬𝑨
∆𝑳
 Diameter Change:- ∆𝑑 = -νd
𝑳
 Hooke’s Law:- 𝑭 = 𝒌𝐗 or 𝑭 = 𝒌∆𝑳
𝑬𝑨
 Stiffness:- 𝒌 =
𝑳
𝑽
 Shear Stress:- 𝝉 =
𝑨
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THANKS!

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55
 Tension and
Compression
The type of stress
that is most
readily visualized
and useful to
develop intuition
about materials
and stresses is
called tension
and compression

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