Lecture 1.

Introduction to
Agricultural Pollution Control

Including particular reference to

Eastern and Central Europe
Prepared by Assoc. Prof. Philip Chiverton, SLU

1
Pollution :
‘the introduction by man, directly or indirectly,
of substances or energy into the environment,
which are liable to create hazards to human health,
to harm living resources and marine ecosystems’

Agricultural pollution is, thus, the direct or indirect

introduction of substances – particularly excessive
nutrients (such as nitrates (N) and phosphorous
(P) ) - or energy into the environment as a result of
mans agricultural activities.

2
How can Agricultural Pollution harm our environment?

3
Eutrophic means nutrient-rich, and eutrophication literally
means enrichment with nutrients, although nowadays the term
is more often used in a negative sense to mean
over-enrichment.

Nutrients - especially nitrogen and phosphorus

- are vital for marine life. But the presence of excessive
nutrients can seriously disturb the functioning of marine
ecosystems.

4
Excessive nutrient inputs into a water body induce biological,
chemical and physical changes in aquatic plant and animal
communities, often leading to oxygen depletion, especially
in deeper waters.

Greenish, murky water is typically the first sign of eutrophication

as microscopic plants and algae grow profusely, consuming the
surplus nutrients. But algae are short-lived, and when they die
they sink to the bottom of the sea, where their decomposition
uses up oxygen.

The worst affected areas can become completely anoxic. In the

absence of oxygen, decomposition can release toxic hydrogen
sulphide, poisoning organisms and making the sea-bed lifeless.

5
 Bluegreen algal blooms, Gulf of Finland
Photos from: Finnish Institute of Marine Research
6
(http://www2.fimr.fi/en/itamerikanta/galleria/15.
Weather conditions can alleviate or accelerate eutrophication.

Mild, wet winters are usually bad news for shallow, coastal
waters, as nutrients are washed from farmland into rivers,
lakes and ultimately the sea.

This creates suitable condition for intense algal blooms

in the spring, which can lead to serious oxygen depletion,
especially if the summer is then warm and calm.

7
 Bluegreen algal bloom, Gulf of Finland 6th August, 2002
Photos from: Finnish Institute of Marine Research
8
(http://www2.fimr.fi/en/itamerikanta/galleria/15.
Algal bloom on the Fyris River near SLU in Uppsala – the river
drains the intensively cultivated agricultural plain of Uppland
9
So the rivers and seas turn green for a while –

Who cares!?!

10
There are many reasons why governments and authorities
throughout the world are deeply concerned about the effects
of agricultural pollution.

Not least is the danger to

1) Public health. In drinking water, high concentrations of
nitrate can cause methemoglobinemia, a potentially fatal
disease in infants also known as blue baby syndrome.
2) Fish stocks and marine biodiversity. Eutrophication destroys
(a) spawning areas for economically valuable fish, and
(b) habitats for other marine life.
3) The tourist industry. Poisonous and/or unsightly and odorous
coastal waters discourage tourists!

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Problems and causes - a summary

 Nutrient over-enrichment of coastal ecosystems generally

triggers ecological changes that decrease the biological diversity
of bays and estuaries

 While moderate N enrichment of some coastal waters may

increase fish production, over-enrichment generally degrades
the marine food web that supports commercially valuable fish.

 The marked increase in nutrient pollution of coastal waters has

been accompanied by an increase in harmful algal blooms, and
in at least some cases, pollution has triggered these blooms.

12
Problems and causes cont’d
 High nutrient levels and the changes they cause in water quality
and the makeup of the algal community are detrimental to the
health of coral reefs and the diversity of animal life supported
by seaweed and kelp communities.

 Research during the past decade confirms that N is the chief

culprit in eutrophication and other impacts of nutrient over-
enrichment in temperate coastal waters, while P is most
problematic in eutrophication of freshwater lakes.

 Human conversion of atmospheric N into biologically useable

forms, principally synthetic inorganic fertilizers, now matches
the natural rate of biological N fixation from all the land surfaces
of the earth.

13
Problems and causes cont’d
 Both agriculture and the burning of fossil fuels contribute
significantly to non-point flows of N to coastal waters, either as
direct runoff or airborne pollutants.

 N from animal wastes that leaks directly to surface

waters or is volatilized to the atmosphere as ammonia
may be the largest single source of N that moves from
agricultural operations into coastal waters.

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How do different agricultural activities contribute
to pollution, and how does this affect our ground
and surface waters??

15
 Agricultural impacts on water quality

Agricultural activity 1. Tillage/ploughing

Impacts
Surface water Groundwater

Sediment/turbidity: sediments
carry phosphorus and pesticides
adsorbed to sediment particles;
siltation of river beds and loss
of habitat, spawning ground, etc.

16
Autumn ploughing in Sweden
17
 Agricultural activity 2. Fertilizing

Impacts
Surface water Groundwater

Runoff of nutrients, especially phosphorus, Leaching of nitrate to

leading to eutrophication causing taste and groundwater; excessive levels
odour in public water supply, excess are a threat to public health.
algae growth leading to deoxygenating
of water and fish kills.

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Fertilizing with anhydrous ammonia
19
 Agricultural activity 3. Manure spreading

Impacts
Surface water Groundwater

Carried out as a fertilizer activity; Contamination of ground-water,

spreading on frozen ground results especially by nitrogen
in high levels of contamination of
receiving waters by pathogens,
metals, phosphorus and nitrogen
leading to eutrophication and
potential contamination.

20
Muck spreading in Lithuania

21
 Agricultural activity 4. Feedlots/animal paddocks

Impacts
Surface water Groundwater

Contamination of surface water with Potential leaching of nitrogen,

many pathogens (bacteria, viruses, metals, etc. to groundwater.
etc.) leading to chronic public health
problems. Also contamination by
metals contained in urine and faeces.

22
Stock yard in Sweden
23
 Agricultural activity 5. Irrigation

Impacts
Surface water Groundwater
Runoff of salts leading to salinization Enrichment of groundwater with
of surface waters; runoff of fertilizers salts, nutrients (especially nitrate).
and pesticides to surface waters with
ecological damage, bioaccumulation
in edible fish species, etc. High levels
of trace elements such as selenium
can occur with serious ecological
damage and potential human health
impacts.

24
Irrigation
25
 Agricultural activity 6. Clear cutting
Impacts
Surface water
Erosion of land, leading to high
levels of turbidity in rivers, siltation
of bottom habitat, etc. Disruption
and change of hydrologic regime,
often with loss of perennial streams;
causes public health problems
due to loss of potable water.
Groundwater
Disruption of hydrologic regime,
often with increased surface runoff
and decreased groundwater
recharge; affects surface water by
decreasing flow in dry periods and
concentrating nutrients and
contaminants in surface water.
26
Dramatic clear cut on the edges of a lake
27
Clear cut forest area with stream in Sweden
28
 Agricultural activity 7. Silviculture

Impacts
Surface water Groundwater

Broad range of effects:

pesticide runoff and contamination
of surface water and fish; erosion
and sedimentation problems.

29
Silviculture – managed forest in Sweden
30
 Agricultural activity 8. Aquaculture

Impacts
Surface water Groundwater

Release of high levels of nutrients

to surface water and groundwater
through feed and faeces, leading
to serious eutrophication.

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Aquaculture – fish farming adds to the nutient burden

32
So, we have a problem and the authorities are aware of
it.

What policies exist within e.g. the European Union to

alleviate the problem?

33
Ironically the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy has tended
to exasperate the problem!

A recent study carried out by the European Nature

Heritage Fund concluded that:

’most of the EU’s agricultural subsidies exert a negative

impact on the environment, for the majority of payments to
farmers are not tied to any environmental regulations’

Over 60% of the agriculture budget’s total 44 billion Euro’s

currently go to the arable crops sector, and these subsidies
are not tied to environmental regulations
34
Grassland - so important for biological diversity and forage
cropping – is excluded from the payments.

Maize, on the other hand, is heavily subsidized such as no

other crop, and ecologically it is highly problematic because
especially large amounts of fertilizer are used in maize
farming.

In Germany this has lead to a massive increase in maize

farming, and at least 25% reduction of meadows and
pastures over the past twenty years.

35
Agricultural water pollution issues surfaced in connection
with the 1980 EU directive on drinking water, which required
member states to ensure that certain quality objectives
for drinking water were met by 1985.

But, during the second half of the 1980’s, it became clear that
most member states had not achieved these quality objectives.

In particular, the maximum pollutant level for nitrate in drinking

water, set at 50 mg per liter, was exceeded in many areas.

36
We will see later that further reforms to the CAP in the late
1980’s (that offered subsidies to farmers who reduced livestock
density, decreased fertilizer use or switched to organic farming
or other extensive forms of production), some National
control measures introduced by individual member states,
and the introduction in 1991 of the Nitrate Directive,
are having some effects.

Annex 11 of the Nitrate directive outlines Code(s) of Good

Agricultural Practice with the objective of reducing pollution
by nitrates.

37
For some Candidate countries and Newly Applied States
problems regarding agricultural pollution of water are
compounded by the lack of a good Agricultural
Advisory Service infrastructure.

38
Let us now examine the situation in and around our
respective seas

i.e. The Baltic Sea and The Black Sea

39
I’ll start with the sea nearest home which of course is

The Baltic sea

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41
Farming the land can pollute the sea

During recent decades the Baltic Sea has been burdened

with increasing inputs of nutrients from agricultural sources
such as manure and fertilisers. The consequent eutrophication
has widely disrupted marine ecosystems.

There have been reductions in the most harmful agricultural

emissions, but farmland remains one of the main sources of
the surplus nutrients entering the Baltic Sea.

42
43
44
The environmental quality of the Baltic Sea is largely
influenced by the inputs of pollutants - particularly excessive
nutrients

Nutrients can enter the sea in runoff from arable land, mainly
via rivers and streams, but also along coasts; or in the form
of deposition from the air.

More than 25 of the 132 serious pollution hot spots identified

around the Baltic Sea since 1992 have already been cleaned
up.

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”Hot Spots”

46
http://maps.grida.no/scripts/esrimap.dll?name=hotspots&cmd=map.html

Follow the above link to access an interactive map with details of all
the known HOT SPOTS in the Baltic sea drainage basin.

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48
 Marine Research Vessel on the Baltic Sea
Photos from: Finnish Institute of Marine Research
(http://www2.fimr.fi/en/itamerikanta/galleria/15.html)
49
50
Deep water oxygen concentration in the
Baltic Proper and Gulf of Finland in 1999
Hypoxia (oxygen concentration < 2 ml/l, pink
areas) and Anoxia (with presence of hydrogen 51
sulphide, red areas) in 1999.
General Information

Hotspot number 128 (Laholm Bay)

Type Agricultural Runoff

Priority No

Country SE

Receiving water body Kattegat

Aim Reduction of nutrient leaching

Measures proposed
Limit to animal density, winter green fields, increase storage cap and restrict handling
of manure

Latest Update
1999

52
 Nitrogen (tonnes in 1995)

250 000
Poland

200 000

Sw eden
150 000
Latvia Russia
100 000 Denm ark
Finland
Estonia
50 000 Lithuania
Germ any

53
http://data.ecology.su.se/boing/index.html

54
 Phosphorus (tonnes in 1995)

16 000 Poland
14 000
12 000
10 000
Russia
8 000
6 000 Sw eden
Finland
4 000 Denm ark
Latvia Lithuania
2 000 Estonia
Germ any
0

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56
The 1990s - a decade of change for farming

A crucial change in agriculture in the Baltic Sea region during

the 1990s has been the reintroduction of private ownership of
farmland in countries in transition between the centrally-
planned economy and the market economy.
Through the 1990s prices for agricultural products remained
low, while production costs were high.

Agricultural production decreased overall, resulting in smaller

production units, and substantial reductions in the use of inputs
such as fertilisers and pesticides. In the future, however,
significant reconstruction of the agricultural sector is to be
expected, and increases in productivity. The transitional
countries will need assistance to ensure that environmentally
sustainable agricultural practices are adopted.
57
In the EU countries changes were less dramatic, but the usage
of both manure and chemical fertilisers decreased widely.
In Germany, particularly in the east, the total area of farmland
shrank considerably during the 1990s. In Finland many farms
also stopped operating, and phosphorus emissions from
agricultural sources declined significantly, as they had earlier
in Sweden.

The reform of the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in

the EU in the early 1990s involved overall reductions in farm
subsidies, and new incentives to promote environmentally
favourable agricultural practices. Requirements for subsidies now
include the adoption of farming practices designed to minimise
animal waste and fertiliser runoff. The CAP is now also being
gradually adopted by the countries hoping to join the EU, so
within a few years a common set of agricultural policies and
subsidies should cover ten of the region's fourteen countries.
58
 Yearly applied P by mineral fertilizers (ton P) -
Lithuania

160 000
140 000
120 000
100 000
80 000
60 000
40 000
20 000
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

59
 Yearly applied P by mineral fertilizers (ton P) -
Poland

180 000

120 000

60 000

0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

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 Yearly applied P by mineral fertilizers (ton P) -
Sweden

160 000
140 000
120 000
100 000
80 000
60 000
40 000
20 000
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

61
Nutrient inputs

Nutrients enter the Baltic Sea either in water flowing into

the sea, or from the atmosphere. Rivers and coastal point
sources such as urban and industrial wastewater outlets
account for most of the nutrient load - in fact three times more
nitrogen and ten times more phosphorus than the
atmospheric input.

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Industrial emissions
of NO2

63
 1000 tonnes
Industrial NO2 emissions

600

300

0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Denmark Finland Germany
Latvia Lithuania Norw ay
Poland NW Russia Sw eden
Data Sources: Data sources: EMEP. Lithuania: Ministry of
Economy of the Republic of Lithuania. NW Russia: Russian
64
Baltic 21 Lead Parties.
Pig factory farm

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Pig farm waste lagoon – a source of ammonia!

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Trends in nutrient inputs

· The inputs of phosphorus to the Baltic Sea are now much

lower than in the 1980s, thanks to improved wastewater
treatment.

· But in recent years this decrease has slowed, and nutrient

inputs from rivers evidently did not decrease during the period
1994-98.

· Inputs of nitrogen, which largely originate from diffuse

sources such as farmland have been more difficult to reduce.

· Annual atmospheric nitrogen deposition into the Baltic Sea

decreased by nearly 40% between 1985 and 1997.

67
One of the non-point sources significantly contributing to the
pollution of the Baltic Sea is the agriculture sector, which is
estimated to account for 30-35 per cent of the total nitrogen
load to the Baltic.

It is dominated by the consumption of the nitrogen fertilizers for

agricultural lands. The massive waterborne nitrogen input to
the Baltic Sea is a major cause of marine eutrophication.

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69
 1000 Riverine nitrogen inputs
tonnes
to the Baltic Sea

800

400

0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

Source: BED http://data.ecology.su.se, and

Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings No. 82A
70
 Riverine total phosphorous inputs
Tonnes
to the Baltic Sea

40000

20000

0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

Source: BED http://data.ecology.su.se

71
The Helsinki Commission, or HELCOM, works to protect
the marine environment of the Baltic Sea from all
sources of pollution through intergovernmental co-operation
between Denmark, Estonia, the European Community,
Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia and
Sweden.

HELCOM is the governing body of the "Convention on the

Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area“
- more usually known as the Helsinki Convention

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The 1974 Convention

For the first time ever, all the sources of pollution around
an entire sea were made subject to a single convention,
signed in 1974 by the then seven Baltic coastal states.

The 1974 Convention entered into force on 3 May 1980.

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The 1992 Convention

In the light of political changes, and developments in

international environmental and maritime law, a new
convention was signed in 1992 by all the states bordering
on the Baltic Sea, and the European Community. After
ratification the Convention entered into force on
17 January 2000. The Convention covers the whole of
the Baltic Sea area, including inland waters as well as the
water of the sea itself and the sea-bed. Measures are also
taken in the whole catchment area of the Baltic Sea to
reduce land-based pollution.

74
The Helsinki Commission is responsible for monitoring
and implementing:

• The 1988 Ministerial Declaration, in particular concerning

reaching the target of 50% reductions in nutrient inputs.

• The Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Environmental

Action Programme (JCP)
established in 1992 to facilitate and monitor the elimination
of the 132 most polluting sources within the Baltic Sea
catchment area – known as "hot-spots".

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The countries in the Baltic Sea drainage basin have
committed to most of the conventions that touch upon the
issue of eutrophication. The most important treaty, the
Helsinki convention has all the coastal countries actively
involved.

Some of the more newly formed states, such as Estonia,

Latvia and Lithuania have not yet signed all of the treaties
for monitoring & pollution.

An important treaty, the Aarhus convention, address the

openness and public access of environmental information,
has not yet been signed by Russia.

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 Pollution & Monitoring General

Country Helsinki UNCLOS NOx Wetlands Aarhus EIA

Belarus

Czech Rep

Denmark

Estonia

Finland

Germany

Latvia

Lithuania

Norway

Poland

Russia

Sweden

Ukraine

Key
Not signed
Signed, but not entered or accepted
Entered or accepted
Not applicable 77
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS)

This convention is very wide in scope, and covers all use of

international seas, environmental, but also shipping and exploitation.
The environmental parts of this convention cover monitoring,
technical assistance and the establishment of basic environmental
principles.

78
Convention of Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
(LRTAP) - NOx Protocol

The objectives of this convention is to monitor and limit the

long-distance pollution of some hazardous substances, to man and
environment.

Among these are nitrous oxide (NOx), sulphur and volatile organic
compounds (VOC). The NOx protocol was selected for this indicator.

79
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention)

Wetlands are of importance as a natural barrier for nutrients in the

drainage basin. The Ramsar Convention seeks to reduce the loss of
wetlands, and to conserve and protect.

80
Convention on Access to Information , Public Participation
in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental
Matters (Aarhus convention)

The Aarhus convention is the youngest in this presentation

(that is why most countries have just signed it yet). This convention
was created with the objective to ensure public access to all forms of
environmental information, such as monitoring and assessment.

81
Convention of Environmental Impact Assessment in a
Transboundary Context (Espoo Convention)

Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) are studies on the

environmental implications of development, such as construction.

Countries committed to this convention are required to create an

EIA and to go for international co-operation in all development that
can effect the environment of the neighbouring countries.

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Now let us look at the situation around your sea

The Black Sea

83
84
85
86
 % Total Nitrates
Danube
Dnieper
Dniester
2% 4% 1% 7%
Don
12% Sea of Azov
Bulgaria
0% Georgia
52% 7%
2% Romania
6%
7% Russia
Turkey
Ukraine

The Danube accounts for more than 50% of the total Nitrate
input to the Black Sea
87
88
Perceived major problems

Decline in Black Sea Commercial Fish Stocks

89
90
(No more Jansson’s Temptation!!!!????)
91
92
Perceived major problems

Loss of habitats, notably wetlands and shelf areas,

supporting important biotic resources

Loss or imminent loss of endangered species

and their genomes

Replacement of indigenous Black Sea species

with exotic ones

Degradation of the Black Sea landscape

93
Perceived major problems

Inadequate protection of marine and coastal

resources from maritime accidents

Unsanitary conditions in many beaches, bathing and

shellfish-growing waters

94
Polluted beaches don’t attract many tourists!!
95