CHAPTER 1

STIMULI AND
RESPONSES
 The Human Nervous System
1. The human nervous system is divided into:
a) The central nervous system (control centre) ;
the brain controls all activities of the body &
the spinal cord controls the involuntary
actions like knee jerks.
b) The peripheral nervous system transmits
impulses from the sensory organs through the
central nervous system to the muscles or
glands
2. Voluntary actions are actions we aware of and
involuntary actions are actions which carry on
automatically.
Human Nervous System
The Brain
Voluntary and Involuntary action
Involuntary action
Reflex arc when hand is touch hot
object
 Eye
1. The eye is the sensory organ of sight that
responds to the light.
2. Sight mechanism:
a) Light rays from the object entering the eye
through the cornea, aqueous humour,
pupil, eyepiece and vitreous humour and
focusing on the retina.
b) The photoreceptors that are trigged and
nerve impulses that are formed are sent
through the optic nerve to the brain.
3. The rod cell in the retina is sensitive to light
of different intensity, such as at night. It is
not sensitive to colour and only a black
and white image I produced.
4. The cone cell in the retina is sensitive to
light of high intensity to detect colour.
 Sclera Choroid

Suspensory Retina
ligament
Cornea

Yellow spot

Pupil Blind spot

Aqueous
humour

Eye Lens
Optic nerve
Iris

Ciliary muscles
Vitreous humour

Structure of Human eye

Eyelid

Pupil

Sclera

Iris

Front view of eye

Side view of eye
 The functions of the different parts
of the eye
PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Sclera -White, tough and - Protect the eye
fibrous coat - Gives the eye
fixed shape
Choroid - Dark colour - Absorbs light to
- Has many blood prevent reflection
capillaries of light inside the
eye
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Retina - Light-sensitive - Place on which
layer of the eye images are
- Contains formed
photoreceptors
that detect light
Yellow Shallow yellowish - The area that is
spot depression in the the most sensitive
retina directly to light
opposite the - The area where
centre of the lens images are
normally focused
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Blind - Located - The spot in the eye
spot immediately over where the optic
the optic nerve nerve enters the eye
- Has no - Not sensitive to light
photoreceptors
Cornea - Transparent layer - Allow light to enter
at the front of the the eye
eye - Directs light towards
- Curved shape the lens
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Conjunctiv - Thin transparent - Protects the
a membrane covering cornea
the exposed part of
the eye
Iris - Part of the choroid - Controls the
layer which can be size of the pupil
seen from the front of thus controlling
the eye as a disc- the amount of
shaped structure light entering
- Consists of muscles the eye
- Coloured, for
example, brown or
blue
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Pupil - A small opening - Enables light to
in the centre of enter the eye
the iris - Controls amount
of light entering the
eye
Ciliary - Consists of the - Contracts and
muscles ciliary muscle relaxes to change
- Part of the the thickness of the
choroid layer lens
PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Eye - A transparent, - Focuses light that
Lens elastic and enters the eye onto
biconvex disc the retina to form
an image
- Focuses light from
near and distant
objects by
changing its
thickness
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Vitreous - Transparent - Helps maintain the
humour jelly-like shape of the
substance eyeball
- Fills the space - Helps focus
behind the images on the
lens retina
Suspensory - Consists of fibres - Holds the lens in
ligaments attaching the position
lens to the ciliary
body
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Aqueous - Watery, - Helps focus images
humour transparent fluid on the retina
- Fills the space - Helps maintain the
between cornea shape of the eyeball
and lens - Enables oxygen and
nutrients from the
choroid to diffuse to
the lens, cornea and
conjunctiva
PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Optic - Nerve - Carries impulses from
nerve connecting the the retina to the brain
photoreceptors
in the retina to
the brain
 How Human See
Light reflected from
an object enters
Brain interprets the
the eye through
image as upright
the pupil

Lens bends the light Impulses formed

rays and focuses and sent through
them onto the the optic nerve to
retina the brain

Inverted image
formed on the Photoreceptors
retina stimulated
 The Human Sight Mechanism

Aqueous
Cornea Pupil
humour

Vitreous
Eye lens
humour

Retina
Optic nerve
(Photoreceptor)

Brain
 Ear
1. The ear is the sensory organ for hearing.
2. Responds to sound stimuli.
 The Human Ear

Outer Middle Inner

- Pinna - ossicles -Cochlea

- ear canal - oval window - semicircular
(filled with canals
air) - Eustachian tube. - auditory nerve
- eardrum (filled with air) (contain fluid)
Hearing Mechanism

1. The ear pinna receives and sends sound

waves through the auditory canal to the
eardrum.
2. The vibration from the ear drum are
amplified by the ossicles and then sent to
the cochlea through the oval window.
3. The cochlea converts sound vibration to
nerve impulses and are transmitted through
the auditory nerve to the brain.
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Outer ear - Made of - Collects and
(a) Pinna cartilage and skin directs sound
waves into the ear
canal
(b) Ear -A narrow passage - Directs sound
canal - Walls near the towards the ear
outside of the ear drum
covered with fine
hairs
-Leads to the ear
drum
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Middle - A thin membrane - Vibrates when
ear sound
(a) Ear waves reach it
drum
(b) - Three small bones - Amplifies and
Ossicles called transmits
the hammer- vibrations of the
bone, anvil- ear drum
bone and stirrup- to the membrane
bone. covering
the oval window
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION

(c) Oval - A small - Transmits

window opening vibrations from
covered by a middle ear to
membrane inner ear
(d) - A narrow tube - Balances air
Eustachian - Connects the pressure on both
tube middle ear with sides of ear drum so
the throat that the ear drum
cam vibrate
freely
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Inner ear - Coiled structure - Changes sound
(a) - Filled with fluid vibrations to
Cochlea - Inner wall contain nerve impulses
receptors
sensitive to
vibrations
(b) - Nerve fibres that - Transmits impulse
Auditory connect from
nerve receptors in the receptors in the
cochlea to cochlea to
the brain the brain
 PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION
(c) Semi- - Three - Involved in
circular semicircular maintaining the
canals canals positioned body balance
at right angles to - Not involved in
each other hearing
- Contains sensory
cells and fluid
 The Hearing Mechanism

The pinna catches Impulses interpreted by

sound waves and the brain as sound
directs the sound
waves to the ear

Nerve impulses carried

by the auditory nerve to
The ear drum vibrates the brain
when the sound
waves strike it

Vibrations of the
The
membrane of the oval
membrane
Vibrations amplified window causes the
of the oval
and transferred by fluid in the cochlea to
window
the ossicles to the move in waves and
vibrates
membrane of the stimulate receptors
oval window that produce nerve
impulses

Figure 4. How we hear

 Nose

1. The nose is the sensory organ for smell.

2. Cells sensitive to smell are found in the
epithelium located high in the nasal cavity.
3. Chemicals in the air dissolve in the mucus
layers that coat the sensory cell of smell
(olfactory cell) and then stimulate it to
produce nerve impulses.
Nose Structure
 Chemicals Brain interprets the
in the air messages as a
specific smell

Air enters nasal Receptors

cavity through (olfactory nerve)
nostrils send messages
to the brain

Chemicals
dissolve in the Receptors
mucus layer stimulated by the
chemicals
The detection of Smell
 Tongue
1. The tongue is the sensory organ for taste.
2. Chemicals in food dissolve in saliva and are
absorbed into the taste buds through the
pores and stimulate the taste receptors in
them to produce nerve impulses.
3. There are five tastes: sweet, salty, sour ,
bitter and umami
4. Tiny bumps found on the tongue called
taste buds contain the receptors that
detect different tastes.
5. Different areas of the tongue detect
different tastes.
6. The saliva in the mouth has two functions:
◦ Dissolve substances so that they can be
detected by the taste receptors.
◦ Make chewed food easier to swallow.
 Chemicals
in food Chemicals
released by dissolved by
chewing saliva

Taste receptors
stimulated by
chemicals in saliva

Brain interprets
the messages Taste receptors
as a specific send messages
taste to the brain

Detected of Taste
 Skin
1. The skin has five receptors that are sensitive
to heat, cold, pressure, touch and pain
stimuli respectively.
2. The thinner the epidermis or the more
receptors found on the skin, the more
sensitive is that part of the skin.
 The Structure of Human Skin
Three layers:

Epidermis Dermis

Hypodermis
(fat layer)
Epidermis

- Outer layer of the skin.

divided into three layers.
- Outermost layer is made up of dead cells.
- Tough and water-resistant .
- It also protects the sensitive cells under it
- Prevents the entry of
germs into the body.
Dermis

- Inner layer of skin.

- Blood vessels, glands and receptors are found
-The glands ~sweat glands and sebaceous glands.
- Receptors~ touch receptors, pain receptors,
heat receptors, cold receptors and
pressure receptors.

Hypodermis (fat layer)

- is a layer directly below the dermis and
serves to connect the skin to the fibrous tissue
of the bones and muscles.
 1. Cold receptors 2. Heat receptors
sensitive to heat.
sensitive to cold.
5. Pressure
receptors
3. Pain - sensitive to
receptors pressure.
Receptors in the Skin
- located the
- nearest to furthest from
the 4. Touch receptors the
epidermis. - sensitive to slight epidermis.
- nerves pressure - stimulated
endings. -found more when any
abundantly object
in certain parts presses hard
(fingertips). against the
skin.
 Sensitivity of the Skin at Different Parts
of the Body

1. The skin on different parts of the body has

different sensitivity.
2. The skin is more sensitive ~ fingertips, neck and
cheek.
3. These areas have more touch receptors or a
thinner epidermis.
4. Some areas of the body are less sensitive than
others.
5. Example: the skin on the back, arms and legs
have fewer nerves endings.
6. The elbows, knees and soles of the feet are not
very sensitive because they have thicker
epidermis.
Limitation of the Sense of Sight
1. The limitation of the sense of sight is the
ability limit the eye to see the object.
2. The optical illusion occurs when our brain
cannot interpret accurately what is
actually seen by the eye.
3. The blind spot does not have any
photoreceptor and we cannot see an
object if its image is formed on it.
Optical Illusion
Eye Defects

In normal vision, light is focused accurately on

the retina to form an image on the retina. This
will produce a clear and sharp image on the
retina.
Defects of vision:
(a) short sightedness.
(b) long sightedness.
(c) astigmatism.
A short-sighted person

1. Can see nearby objects clearly but distant

objects appear blur due to the image of
the object which falls in front of the retina.
2. The eyeballs are too long and the eye
lenses are too thick. This is because the
ciliary muscles are too weak to make the
eye lens thinner.
3. Can be corrected by wearing concave
lenses.
A long-sighted person

1. Can see distant objects clearly but nearby

objects appear blur because the image of
a near object falls behind the retina.
2. The eyeballs are too short and the eye
lenses are too thin. This is because the
ciliary muscles are too weak to make the
eye lens thicker.
3. The defect can be corrected by wearing
convex lenses.
 Vision Short sightedness Long sightedness
defect
causes Eyeball is too Eyeball is too short
long or lens is too or lens is too thin
thick
Symptom Can see near Near objects
objects clearly appear blur but
but distant can see distant
objects appear objects clearly
blur
 Short sightedness Long sightedness

Light focus in front of Light focus behind the

retina retina
 Vision Short sightedness Long sightedness
defect
Method of Use a concave Use a convex lens to
correction lens to diverge converge light rays
(spread out) light (make them come
rays just before closer together) just
they enter the before they enter
eyes so that the eyes so that
image if formed image is formed at a
further inside and shorter distance and
exactly on the exactly on the
retina. retina.
Astigmatism
1. Caused by irregular curvature of the
cornea or the lens.
2. The light rays from an object is split and
focused at different points in the eye.
3. Some light may be focused on the retina,
some light will be focused in front or
behind the retina.
4. Causes blurred vision for both near and
distant objects
5. Can be corrected with cylindrical lenses
Limitation of Sight and Hearing

Device to overcome the

limitation of sight
Limitation of Sight
Limitation of sight Devices
Cannot see through X-ray machine,
objects that are not ultrasound scanning
transparent device
Cannot see objects that Binoculars, telescope
are very far away

Cannot see objects that Magnifying glass,

are very tiny microscope

Cannot see around Periscope

corners
Ultrasound machine
Telescope
Microscope
X-ray machine
Limitation of Sight and Hearing

Device to overcome the

limitation of hearing
Stethoscope
Hearing aid
Microphone
Loud speaker
 The Response in Plants

1. The response of plants to stimuli is called

tropism.
2. The tropic movements such as
phototropism are important to help the
plants to obtain the basic needs like light,
water and minerals.
Stimuli and Responses in Plants
Responses of Plants to Stimuli

Plants respond by either positive tropism or

negative tropism.
Positive tropism- the growth of the part of the
plant towards the direction of the stimulus.
Negative tropism- the growth of the part of the
plant away from the direction of the stimulus.
Nastic movement – not dependent on the
direction of the stimulus.
Phototropism

Phototropism- the growth of a plant to light.

The shoots of plants show positive
phototropism- they grow towards the light.
The roots of plants show negative
phototropism- they grow away from the light.
Geotropism

◦ Response to gravity.
◦ Root show positive geotropism since they
grow in the direction of gravity.
◦ Shoots show negative geotropism since they
grow in the opposite direction to the pull of
gravity
Hydrotropism

The growth of a plant part in response to

water.
Roots grow towards water- positive
hydrotropism.
Positive hydrotropism of roots is stronger than
the positive geotropism of roots.
When the direction of water source and the
direction of gravity is not same, roots will grow
towards the water.
Thigmotropism

◦ Response towards touch or contact with a

solid object.
◦ The stems and tendrils of climbing plants grow
and twine around a support when they come
into contact with the support.
◦ Stems and tendrils- positive thigmotropism.
Use tendril

use twinning stem

Nastic Movement

The response of a plant part to a stimulus in

which the movement of the plant part is
independent of the direction of the stimulus.
Nastic movement takes place more quickly than
a tropism.
One type- seismonasty ~ Mimosa pudica and
Venus flytrap.
Nastic Movement

Leaves of Mimosa pudica close immediately

when they are touched. The leaves will open
again after a while. Thus, these leaves show
seismonastic response.
Venus flytrap- closes and trap insects that land
on it.
Photonastiy - nastic movement involved in
growth.
Some flowers open in bright light and close in
dim light or vice versa.
 Visions in Humans and Animals
1. Stereoscopic vision is the vision whereby both
the eye located in front of the head.
2. The production of three-dimensional images
enables humans and predators to estimate
distance accurately.
3. Monocular vision is the vision whereby both of
the eye are located at the side of the head.
4. The production of two-dimensional images
makes the preys difficult to estimate distance
accurately.
5. However, the field of monocular vision is
wider.
Monocular vision
Properties of stereoscopic vision:
- a smaller field of vision compared to
monocular vision
- the visual fields of both eyes overlap in the
middle.
- it allows distance to be estimated more
accurately
- it is found in predators such as tigers, cats,
dogs, and owls.
Properties of monocular vision:
- a very wide field of vision compared to
stereoscopic vision.
- there is little or no overlap between the visual
fields of both eyes.
- distance cannot be estimated accurately.
- it is found in prey such as mice, rabbits, fish and
most birds.
Both stereoscopic and monocular vision are
important to the survival of animals.
Predators hunt other animals – need to
estimate the distance correctly to capture
their prey.
Prey- need to have wide field of vision in
order to detect predators which may try to
approach from the side or back.