COMPUTER Main

MEMORY
• Modern computers use semiconductor
memory
• It is made up of thousands of circuits
(paths) for electrical currents on a
single silicon chip
• Prices have risen and fallen over the
past few years
• Semiconductor memory is VOLATILE ie
it need continued electrical current to
maintain data
MAIN MEMORY – What
is does
• Special chips that hold data and
instructions ready for use by the
CPU
• Anything we want the computer
to do must be brought into the
computer’s memory first
 MAIN MEMORY
• Main memory is limited in size (because
of cost) and is measured in kilobytes,
megabytes and gigabytes
• The purpose of Main Memory is keep
needed data and instructions closer to
the CPU
• The computer can then operate faster
 MAIN MEMORY
Temporary
• It is a TEMPORARY holding location for
data and instructions
• Temporary – because there is too little
of it!
• Since everything is lost when we close
down the computer it is said to be
VOLATILE
 Permanent Storage
• Some form of permanent
storage is needed or all our
records will be lost when we
switch off the computer
Permanent Storage
• Magnetic Storage
– Hard disk
– Floppy disk
– Zip disk
• Optical Storage
– CD
– DVD
 Main Memory and the
CPU
The CPU is linked very closely with Main
Memory so that movement of data and
instructions can take place very quickly
along high-speed buses

The CPU and Main Memory are on the same

circuit board called the MOTHERBOARD
 Types of Memory
• Registers – (On the CPU)
• Level 1 (L1) memory (SRAM chips
on the CPU)
• Level 2 memory (SRAM chips
nearer the CPU than Main Memory)
• Main Memory chips (DRAM) –
normal memory
 Registers
• High speed memory chips that are
located on the same chip as the CPU
• Hold next instruction or next piece
of data needed by the CPU
• Hold the results of processing by the
CPU
• Each CPU contains hundreds of
registers
 CACHE Memory

• Keeps frequently needed instructions

closer to the CPU
• Logs user’s activities to find out and
anticipate the data and instructions
the user might need and to have
them ready
Level 1 (Internal) Cache

• This is a memory chip which is

built into the processor chip
• The problem is to make the
memory components small
enough
• This is SRAM
Level 2 (External) Cache
• This is a separate SRAM chip which
is placed between the CPU and
regular DRAM or Main Memory to
speed up processing
• Usually 256Kb to 512Kb in capacity
 SIMM’s and DIMM’s
• Memory chips come in multi-chip
modules called SIMM’s or DIMM’s
(Single or Dual In-line Memory
Modules) 16 MB 32MB, 64Mb, 128MB
• This makes the installation and
handling of memory chips easier
 Main Memory
• After registers and cache the next
level of memory is referred to as
Main Memory
• Two types
– RAM
– ROM
 RAM – Random Access
Memory
• Random Access - time to locate data is the
same regardless of storage location in
memory
• Volatile - It loses its contents when power
is switched off
• RAM is read-write
• Expensive
• Different types (SRAM, DRAM, etc)
 Overview
• Memory Hierarchy
• RAM
• Memory Chip Organization
• ROM
• Flash Memory
 Memory Hierarchy (contd)
Registers
• top in the hierarchy
• matched in speed to the CPU
• but are large and consume significant power
• number of registers in a processor are small

Secondary and off-line storage devices

• at the bottom of the hierarchy
• cost per stored bit small in terms of money and
power
• but access time is very long compared to
registers
 Random Access Memory(RAM)
• The term “random” means any memory
location can be accessed in the same
amount of time regardless of its
position in the memory.
• Volatile memory
• Types of RAM:
– SRAM
– DRAM
 Static RAM
• Static RAM (SRAM) based on flip flops
• Contents of each location persist as long
as power is applied.
• Fast but relatively large
• Consume a lot of power
• Used for memory applications that are
small but fast
 Dynamic RAM
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM) employ capacitors
• Capacitor stores electric charge whose level
represents a 1 or 0
• Capacitors dissipate with time and hence the charge
must be restored frequently
• DRAMs
smaller, slower than SRAMs
support low cost, low power and high density and
hence used in main memory
 Read Only Memory(ROM)
• Data stored in these chips is
nonvolatile -- it is not lost when power is
turned off.
• On turn on, the computer loads BIOS
from ROM
• Data stored in these chips is either
unchangeable or requires a special
operation to change
• Applications: Videogames, calculators,
microwave oven, etc
 Read Only Memory(ROM) (contd)
• Lets see the circuit for a ROM that
stores four four-bit words(0101, 1011,
1110, 0000)
• PROM burner allows contents of the
ROM to be overwritten only once
• EPROMs – could be written several
times
• EEPROMs – allow the content to be
rewritten electrically
 Flash Memory
• A section of memory cells can be erased
in a single step, or 'flash', thus the
name
• Nonvolatile memory
• Flash memory is used for easy and fast
information storage in such devices as
digital cameras, mobile, video game
consoles
 ROM
• ROM is used to store programs
that perform specialised functions
ie ‘boot’
• ROM is non-volatile - It retains its
contents when power is switched
off
• ROM is read-only but there are
special chips which can be re-
written (EPROM)
 ROM - continued
• ROM takes care of loading the
Operating system into Main Memory
• ROM ensures that the computer
knows what to do when it is switched
on
 What does this mean?
• If the registers are bigger more
data and larger instructions can be
handled at one operation
• More complex operations can be
performed
• The computer operates faster
 TRANSFER TIME

• The time taken by the computer to

carry the data and instructions
along buses between the memory
components and the CPU for
processing
 VIRTUAL MEMORY
• When data/instructions are not
actually held in RAM because of lack
of space
• Paging/Segmentation swaps data in
and out of RAM
 FLASH MEMORY
• Generally Main Memory is volatile
• New non-volatile RAM memory chips are
now used in mobile-phones, notebook
computers, digital cameras
• Reason for their use is they need less
power so are suitable for portable
devices and are faster than secondary
storage devices
MEMORY HIERARCHY
• PROCESSOR - Registers
• CACHE – (LI and L2)
• RAM MEMORY – Main Memory
• DISK - Flash Memory
• MASS STORAGE – Permanent
storage
 Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
Components
• Electromechanical
– Rotating disks
– Arm assembly
• Electronics
– Disk controller
– Cache
– Interface controller
 HDD Organization
Arm
Assembly Spindle Cylinder
Arm Head

Platter
Track
 Disk Medium Materials
• Aluminum with a deposit of magnetic
material
• Some disks also use glass platters
– Eg. Newer IBM/Hitachi products
– Better surface uniformity and stiffness but
harder to deposit magnetic material
• Anti-Ferromagnetically Coupled media
– Uses two magnetic layers of opposite polarity
to reinforce the orientation.
– Can provide higher densities but at higher
manufacturing complexity
 Storage Density
• Determines both BPI
capacity and
performance
• Density Metrics TPI

– Linear density
(Bits/inch or BPI)
– Track density
(Tracks/inch or TPI)
– Areal Density =
BPIxTPI
 Optical Media
Signal is written to and read from a rotating disc by
means of a focused laser beam

Formats include Laserdiscs (introduced in 1978), CDs

(1982), pre-recorded MiniDiscs (1992), and DVDs
(1995)
Optical Media — CDs and
DVDs
• Numerous format variants: CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-ROM,
DVD-R, DVD-RW, DVD-RAM, Blu-Ray DVD, and many more

• Standard size is 12cm (4.75”) in diameter and 1.2mm thick, but

structurally there is wide variation

• Complex laminate structures vulnerable to damage from light,

temperature, humidity, and poor handling

• Recordable media (e.g., CD-Rs and DVD-Rs) are the variants

most likely to be found in Special Collections, and are also the
most vulnerable
 Optical Media —
Structure
All optical discs have:
• Substrate (base layer)
– Polycarbonate (hygroscopic)
• Metal reflective layer
– aluminum, silver, silver alloy, or gold
• Data layer
– Molded, photosensitive dye, or phase-
changing metal alloy

Some discs have:

• Protective lacquer coating on top and sides (CDs)
• Adhesive layer (DVDs)
• Label or printable surface

ALL of these components are vulnerable to multiple types of damage and

deterioration
 Three Types of CDs and
DVDs
• Read-Only/Replicated (ROM discs)
– Data layer is molded into the base layer surface

• Recordable/Write-Once (R discs)
– Data layer is a photosensitive organic dye
(phthalocyanine, cyanine, or azo)

• Rewritable/Erasable (RW discs)

– Data layer is a phase-changing metal alloy film
 Damage and
Deterioration (2)
Deformation (delamination, shrinkage, warping, cracking)
– Causes: Heat, temperature and RH fluctuations, mishandling, physical stress
(flexing, bending, etc.), horizontal storage, removal or expansion/contraction of
adhesive labels
– Deformed discs cannot spin properly, and can even damage playback equipment
 Care and Handling
• Avoid touching disc surfaces
• Hold discs by gently grasping the outer edges or or
placing a finger in the center hole
• Never bend or flex discs
• Remove a disc from its container by pressing down on the
center hub to release
• Never leave a disc sitting inside playback equipment
• Clean discs with a soft, non-abrasive, lint-free cloth; use
distilled water only if absolutely necessary
• Wipe discs radially (from center to outer edge)
• Inspect discs periodically for signs of deterioration
 Labelling
• Do not apply adhesive labels to disc surfaces (labels can warp or
unbalance discs, inks may damage lacquer)

• Do not attempt to peel off adhesive labels (this may

delaminate the disc)

• If you must write on an optical disc, write only on the

clear inner hub on the label side of the disc

• Never write on discs with a writing implement that could scratch the
disc (possibly damaging the data below) or that uses ink containing
acids that could damage the lacquer protective layer
– AIC Electronic Media Group’s Optical Media pen http://aic.stanford.edu/sg/emg
(felt tip, water-soluble ink)
Environment and Storage
• Store in a clean, cool, dry, dark environment

• Minimize exposure to light, heat, and humidity

• Avoid dramatic changes in temperature or RH

• Orient discs vertically in rigid enclosures specifically

designed for optical media; never stack discs horizontally or
allow them to lean

• Do not pack discs too tightly or loosely on shelves

• Return discs to storage containers immediately after use to

avoid surface damage and exposure to light
RAM
 Overview

• In this chapter, you will learn how to

– Identify the different types of DRAM

packaging

– Explain the varieties of RAM

– Select and install RAM

 Program Execution

• Program code is copied from your hard

drive into RAM before it is executed
 Understanding DRAM

• Dynamic random access memory

(DRAM) is the most popular type of
electronic memory
– Special type of
semiconductor that
stores ones and zeroes
using microscopic capacitors
and transistors
– Single chip that can hold
millions of these
capacitor/transistor
combinations
– Limited width of 1, 4, 8+ bits
 Memory Controller Chip
• The memory controller chip (MCC) handles
the flow of data from the RAM to the CPU
• MCC takes care of the physical access
• CPU doesn’t care if it’s one chip
or eight chips!
 DRAM Sticks

• Individual DRAM chips were

difficult to maintain
• An alternative was needed
– Put them on a stick
 The RAM of Your
•
Ancestors
Early RAM types were called Fast Page
Mode (FPM) and Extended Data Out
(EDO)
– Speed measured in nanoseconds
– Example: 72-pin SIMM
 SDRAM

• Synchronous dynamic RAM (SDRAM) is

tied to the system clocks
– Synchronized with system clock
– Measured in MHz
– Comes on DIMM sticks
– SO-DIMMs for laptops
 (Dual Inline Memory
Module)
• This is the standard for SDRAM
• The 168-pin DIMM was very popular
for desktops
• 144-pin SO-DIMMs (small outline) are
used in laptops
 RDRAM

• RDRAM (Rambus DRAM) is a type of

RAM
– Speeds of up to 800 MHz
– Comes on sticks called RIMMs
– 184-pin for desktops and 160-pin SO-
RIMM for laptops
– Dual-channel architecture
– All slots must be populated: unused slots
must have a CRIMM (continuity RIMM)!
 DDR SDRAM
Double Data Rate
• DDR SDRAM doubles the throughput of
SDRAM
– 184-pin DIMM packages (desktops)
– 172-pin micro-DIMM and 200-pin SO-
DIMM packages (laptops)
– Wide range of speeds and naming
conventions
 Architecture

• Uses two sticks of RAM together to

increase throughput
• Works only with paired RAM sticks
 DDR2 SDRAM

• Doubled the clock, increasing buffering

• Does not speed up core RAM, but just
the I/O
• 240-pin DIMM (not compatible with
DDR)
 DDR3
• Double the rate of DDR2
• 240-pin DIMM – not compatible with
DDR2 (as shown in the graphic)

DDR2 (top) and DDR3 (bottom) sticks

 RAM Variations
• Double-sided sticks

• Latency

• Parity and error correction code

• Buffered/Registered

– Let's take a look at each one

 Double-Sided DIMMS

• Almost all sticks come

as single-sided or
double- sided
• Your motherboard may
or may not be able to
accept double-sided
sticks
 Latency

• Latency
– Measure of RAM response time
– Shown as CLx (x =2 - 9)
– Higher the number, the higher the latency
– Check motherboard manual for latency
limits
 DRAM

• Most motherboards support only four

sticks of RAM
– More than four sticks present challenges
for memory controllers
– To overcome these problems, buffering
chips
are added
– Buffering chips as intermediary between
RAM
and MCC
 Working with RAM

• What’s wrong with this picture?

 Working with RAM
(continued)
• Avoid ESD damage
• Don’t touch pins or connectors directly
 Do You Need RAM?

• Two symptoms point to needing more

RAM
– General system sluggishness, especially as
more programs are opened
– Disk thrashing or excessive hard drive
accessing,
caused by excessive paging

Note: Disk thrashing can also be caused by disk fragmentation

 Determining Current RAM in Windows
XP

• My Computer
Properties
– WINDOWS KEY-
PAUSE/BREAK key
• Task Manager
– CTRL-SHIFT-ESC
 Determining Current RAM in Windows
Vista

• Same as XP
• Computer
Properties
– WINDOWS KEY-
PAUSE/BREAK key
• Task Manager
– CTRL-SHIFT-ESC
 Getting the Right RAM

• Identify capacity
– What can the motherboard handle (look at
the manual)?
• Identify empty slots
– If all slots are filled, you’ll have to pull
some out
– For example, pull out 256-MB sticks to add
512-MB sticks
• CPU-Z is a great tool to determine what
you have
– Also shows latency
 Lab – Finding the Right
RAM
• Upgrading RAM is the most common
hardware upgrade that people do—
and the easiest!

• You’ll need a motherboard manual and

access to the Internet to complete
this lab
 Lab – RAM for the PC
1. Consult the motherboard manual to
determine type and amount of RAM
the system will support
2. Go to one or more of the following
Web sites to find the right RAM
– www.newegg.com
– www.tigerdirect.com
– www.frys.com
– www.bestbuy.com
 Peril
• Mixing DRAM speeds can cause the
system to lock up, leading to data
corruption

• You can use faster DRAM than the

motherboard recommends, but you won’t
see an increase in performance

• You can put different speeds of DRAM

in different banks as long as they are
both faster than the speed specified
 Installing DIMMs

• Swing the side tabs away from upright

• Push the DIMM down somewhat hard…

the two tabs should move back into
place
•
Installing RAM
Get the proper RAM
Checklist
• Handle on edges only
• Don’t touch contacts
• Power down the PC and unplug it
• Flip latches open
• Align RAM groove with slot
• Insert RAM straight into slot
Inserting a DIMM
 Lab – Your Turn (Installing RAM)

1. On your motherboard, 5. Remove RAM

remove and install the
RAM 6. Handle edges only
– The act of removing and
putting back the RAM is
called re-seating the 7. Don’t touch contacts
RAM
8. Align RAM groove with
2. Unplug the PC slot

3. Take appropriate ESD 9. Insert RAM straight

precautions into slot

4. Flip latches open

 Installing SO-DIMMs
in Laptops
• Make sure the system is
off
– No AC connection
– Remove all
batteries
• Remove the panel or lift
the keyboard
• Slide the pins into position
and then snap the SO-
DIMM down into the
retaining clips
 Testing RAM

• Hardware RAM testing devices can be

used to troubleshoot errors

• Memtest86 is a freeware tool that can

be used to test RAM

• Vista comes with a memory testing

utility on the install disc
computing ESSENTIALS    

6
Secondary
Storage

Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 77

Hill Companies, Inc.Copyright
computing ESSENTIALS    

Competencies
Different types of media
Floppy disks
Hard disks
Performance enhancements
Optical disks
Specialized media

Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 78

Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

Secondary Storage
• Stores information
• Non-volatile, permanent storage
• Characteristics
– Media
– Capacity
– Access time

Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 79

Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

Types of Storage Media

• Types widely used today
– Floppy disks
– Hard disks
– Optical disks
– Magnetic tape

Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 80

Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

Floppy Disks
• Portable and removable
• Flat circular Mylar
media
– Magnetic charge on
metal oxide film
coating
• Standard 2HD 1.44 MB
• Parts
– Tracks
– Sectors Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 81
Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

High Capacity Floppy Disks

• Floppy disk
cartridges
– Zip Disks
• 250 MB
– SuperDisks
• 120 MB
– HiFD disks
• 200 MB
Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 82
Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

Hard Disks
• Metallic disks
• Fast retrieval, greater capacity
• Read/write heads ride cushion of air
.000001” thick
• Three types
– Internal hard disk
– Hard-disk cartridge
– Hard-disk pack

Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 83

Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

Internal Hard Disk

• Inside system unit
• Non-removable or portable
• Great capacity
– Over 100 Gigabytes
• Fast access speed

Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 84

Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

Hard-disk Cartridges
• Portable, removable
• Complement internal
hard drive
– JAZ from Iomega
– SPARQ from
SyQuest
• PC Card Hard Disks
– Laptop computers
Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 85
Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

Hard-disk Packs
• Used in mainframes
• Removable
– Resemble stack of
vinyl records
• Multiple read/write
heads
• Massive storage
capacity
Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 86
• Fast access time
Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

Optical Disks
• Very large capacity
– Up to 17 gigabytes
• Use reflected light projected by a laser
• Lands and Pits represent 1’s and 0’s
• Formats
– Compact Disk (CD)
– Digital Versatile Disk (DVD)
– DataPlay
Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 87
Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

Compact Disks
• Widely used format today
• Can store from 650 MB to 1 GB
• Rotational speed = data transfer time
• Types of CDs
– CD-ROM
– CD-R
– CD-RW

Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 88

Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

CD-ROM
• Compact Disc-Read Only Memory
– Cannot be written to or erased
• Similar to commercial music CDs
• Used often to distribute large databases
or references

Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 89

Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

CD-R & CD-RW

• CD-Recordable
– Written to once
– Custom made music CDs
• CD-ReWritable
– Erasable CD
– Ideal for multimedia presentations

Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 90

Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

DVD
• Digital Versatile Disk

• Rapidly replacing CDs

– Higher capacity

– 17 times the capacity of a CD

Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 91

Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

DVD Types
• DVD types
– DVD-ROM
• Read only memory
– DVD-R
• Recordable
– DVD-RAM or DVD-RW
• Competing rewritable formats

Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 92

Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

DataPlay
• Optical write-once format
• Similar to CD-R
• Size of a quarter
• Used for special applications
– Storing digital photographs
– Storing music for portable players

Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 93

Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

Other Secondary Storage

Types
• Complement other secondary storage devices
• Specialized device types
– Magnetic tape
– Internet hard drives
– Solid state storage

Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 94

Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

Magnetic Tape
• Sequential access
• Commonly used for backing-up data
• Very large capacity
• Types of magnetic tape
– Tape cartridges
– Magnetic tape reels

Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 95

Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

Magnetic Tape Types

• Tape cartridges
– Backup tape for microcomputer
– Capacities range from 120 MB to 5 GB
– Digital audio tape (DAT)
• Tape reels
– Minicomputer and mainframe
– 1/2 inch wide and 1/2 mile long
– Stores 1600 to 6400 cpi
Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 96
Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

Internet Hard Drive and

Solid State
• Internet hard drive
– Free or low-cost storage on the Web
– Access information from any location
– Access time is greater
• Solid-state storage
– No moving parts
– Flash memory cards

Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 97

Hill Companies, Inc.
computing ESSENTIALS    

A Look to the Future

• Blue laser light optical devices
• Aimed more accurately
• Can increase storage capacity to 27
GB per standard optical disk
• New players will likely play both

Copyright 2003 The McGraw- 98

Hill Companies, Inc.