Excretory System

Presented By:
Mr. Kiran D. Baviskar,
Assist. Professor
Dept. of Pharmaceutics,

Smt. Sharadchandrika Suresh Patil College of Pharmacy, Chopda.

Excretion:
Excretion is the elimination of metabolic waste across the
cell membrane.

Waste products are formed due to catabolism of glucose,

amino acids, glycerol and fatty acids.

The waste products formed are CO2, H2O, bile pigments and
nitrogenous wastes.

Excess of inorganic salts, hormones and vitamins are also

considered wastes.
The lungs are excretory organs because CO2, H2O and other
volatile substances are eliminated through them.

Skin helps in elimination of urea, inorganic salts and water

through sweat glands.

The bile pigments, bilirubin and biliverdin formed in the

liver by breakdown of haemoglobin are excretory substances
which pass out through intestine.
Kidney plays a major role as an excretory organ in all
vertebrates.
Kidney perform three major functions:
i) Eliminate nitrogenous waste.
ii) Maintain water balance of the body i.e. Osmoregulation.
iii) Maintain concentration of hydrogen ions in the organism
The excess of amino acid in the liver is converted into
ammonia by a process called deamination.

In some animals detoxification of ammonia within the liver

takes place and less toxic urea and uric acid are formed.

Based on the nature of nitrogenous excretory end product,

animals show three modes of excretion.
1. Ammonotelism
2. Ureotelism
3. Uricotelism
Ammonotelism:
Phenomenon of formation of excretory product in the form of
ammonia is called ammonotelism.

Organisms which excrete ammonia as main excretory product

are ammonotelic.

Ammonia is highly soluble in water, highly toxic.

It can be excreted by simple diffusion.

So, its concentration in the body is kept very low.

It is harmful to surrounding tissues. So, it cannot be retained in

the body for long time.
Therefore it has to be eliminated out as soon as it is formed.
Ureotelism:
Elimination of nitrogenous wastes in the form of urea is
ureotelism.

Certain animals cannot get sufficient amount of water to

excrete ammonia.

As ammonia is very toxic, it must be converted to less toxic

form.

In liver, in these animals, ammonia combines with carbon-di-

oxide to form urea.

Urea formation requires expenditure of energy. It is formed in

liver by ornithine cycle..
Urea can be stored for sometime and can be excreted at a
lower rate.

Urea is soluble in water and is stored in dissolved form called

urine.

Elimination of urea requires moderate amount of water i. e; 50

ml of water for one gm of urea.

Ureotelic animals are terrestrial animals like frog, turtles,

toads, mammals, marine fishes.
Uricotelism:
Elimination of nitrogenous waste in the form of uric acid is
uricotelism.

Synthesis of uric acid from ammonia requires more energy.

It takes place in liver by inosinic pathway. So, it is

advantageous for desert and terrestrial animals as it is less
toxic, harmless and insoluble in water.

Uric acid is eliminated in the form of solid pallets or thick

paste which requires negligible amount of water for its
elimination i.e; about 10ml of water for elimination of one gm
uric acid.

So, these animals can conserve water by uricotelism.

Animals like land snails, reptiles, birds, terrestrial insects,
lizards, snakes are uricotelic.

In human and other mammals, small quantity of uric acid is

formed in the body by breakdown of purine and pyrimidine
nitrogen bases of nucleic acid.

In some persons, due to defective metabolism, excess uric

acid gets deposited in joints of bones which causes painful
arthritis called gout.
Guanotelism- Arachnids (spiders and scorpions, penguins)
excrete mostly guanine and hence are called guanotelic.

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM:

Human excretory system consists of:
1. A pair of kidneys
2. A pair of ureters
3. A single unpaired urinary bladder
4. Urethra in males or vestibule in females.
DIFFERENT EXCRETORY ORGANS

NCERT
Protonephridia or flame cells are the excretory structures in
Platyhelminthes (Flatworms, e.g., Planaria), rotifers, some
annelids and the cephalochordate – Amphioxus
Antennal glands or green glands perform the excretory function in
.crustaceans like prawns
Protonephridia are primarily concerned with ionic and fluid
volume regulation, i.e., osmoregulation.
Nephridia are the tubular excretory structures of earthworms and other
annelids.
Nephridia help to remove nitrogenous wastes and maintain a fluid and
ionic balance.

Malpighian tubules are the excretory structures of most of the insects

including cockroaches.
Malpighian tubules help in the removal of nitrogenous wastes and
osmoregulation.
KIDNEY
Kidneys:
The kidneys are dark red, bean shaped, about 10 cm long, 5 cm
wide, and 4 cm thick.
Kidneys are attached to the dorsal body wall at the level of
12th thoracic to 3rd lumbar vertebra in the abdominal
cavity.
They have peritoneal covering only on anterior surface. So,
they are described as retro-peritoneal.
The right kidney is slightly lower in position than the left
kidney.
Each kidney is convex on lateral margin and medial surface
shows a notch called hilus.
Blood vessels, nerves and ureters enter and leave the kidney
through hilus.
Functions of kidney:
i) Kidneys perform the function of maintaining internal
environment constant and delicately balanced.

ii) Extraction of nitrogenous waste products.

iii) Adjustment of Na+, K-+ and Cl- ion concentration.

iv) Regulation of acid base balance i.e. pH of body fluids.

v) Regulation of composition of blood with respect to salts and

water content.

vi)Removal of excess of foreign substances like drugs and

pigments.
Blood supply to kidney:
Renal artery is a branch of dorsal aorta which enters at the
hilus and supplies blood to the kidney.

A tributary of inferior vena cava called renal vein collects

blood from the kidney.

The renal artery divides into capillaries, which carry blood to

the glomerulus of the uriniferous tubule.

The renal vein carries blood away from the uniferous tubule
through its capillary network..
L.S. of kidney:
Each kidney is covered by semi-liquid fatty tissue called
adipose capsule.
Outer covering of this capsule is made up of tough fibrous
connective tissue called renal fascia.
In L.S., the kidney shows two regions within the capsule.
Outer, renal cortex and inner, renal medulla.
Renal cortex: It is the outer region of kidney.

Renal medulla: It is lighter in color and divided into number

of pyramidal regions called renal pyramids (6 to 20).

Renal Pyramid- Each pyramid has a wide base attached to the cortex
and narrow apex directed towards an inner space called renal papillae.
Pyramids show striations that converge towards the apex.
Columns of Bertini:
The renal column of Bertini is the part of the cortex
continued inside medulla between pyramids.

Renal sinus/pelvis :
The large funnel shaped space of the calyx is continued into
pelvis situated near the hilus.

The ureter is connected to the pelvis. This hollow region of the

kidney is filled with its secretion i.e. the urine in the natural
state.

The edge of the pelvis contains cup like extensions called

major and minor calyces. Each minor calyx receives urine
from collecting ducts and about 7-8 collecting ducts join to
form duct of Bellini toward papilla of pyramid.
Ureters:
A pair of narrow ducts each coming out of kidney through the
hilus and running particularly up to urinary bladder into which
they open by lateral angle.

Each is about 40 cm long. They carry urine from the kidneys

to urinary bladder by peristaltic contractions.
Urinary Bladder:
It is a pear shaped structure having thick muscular wall lined
by transitional epithelium that allows expansion.

It also shows thick layer of smooth muscles called detrusor

muscle.

It is a single, large, muscular bag lying in the pelvic cavity.

In the absence of valves, the oblique course of ureters through

the wall of bladder prevent the backward flow of urine into
ureters.
Bladder stores urine temporarily and expels it out at intervals
through urethra (500 ml to 1 liter of urine).
Its opening is guarded by sphincter muscle called urethral
sphincter.
The opening of this sphincter which is under voluntary control
results in micturation, urination and emptying of urinary
bladder

In females urethra is short about 4 cm and opens in front of

vaginal opening in vestibule.

In males it is longe since it passes through penis, 20 cm long

Nephrons:
Kidney produces urine by its microscopic functional units
called nephrons.
A nephron is essentially a long coiled duct in which the coiling
takes a definite course.
A nephron along with the collecting tubule is also called as a
uriniferous tubule.
There are about 1 to 1.2 million nephrons in each kidney.
Structure of nephron:
A nephron is a thin walled, coiled, duct lined by a single layer
of epithelial cells.
Its proximal end is blind i.e. has no opening anywhere while
the distal end opens into a collecting tubule.
The proximal and distal ends of nephron both lie in the cortex
of the kidney while middle region lies in the medulla.
Total length of each nephron is about 3cm and 20-60 |um in
diameter in mammals.

A nephron can be divided into two regions- the

1. Bowman’s capsule
2. Renal tubule.
1. Bowman’s capsule
The Bowman’s capsule is the proximal blind end of
the nephron.
Its widest part is double walled and cup- shaped.
Outer layer is called parietal layer and inner
layer is visceral layer which continues along the rim of
the cup.
Each layer is formed of squamous epithelium.
The space enclosed by the two layers is called urinary space.
It is continuous with the space of the renal tubule which
originates from the base of Bowman’s capsule.
Within the cup shaped space formed by the visceral layer of
the Bowman’s capsule lies a globular network of capillaries
called glomerulus.
A thin branch of the renal artery is afferent arteriole which
supplies blood to the glomerulus while slightly thinner
efferent arteriole carries blood away from the glomerulus.
There is an intimate connection between glomerulus and
Bowman’s capsule..
glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule together are called as
Two together are referred as
Renal corpuscles or
Malpighian body or
Pygmalion corpuscle.
The renal tubule :
The renal tubule arises from the base of Bowman’s capsule.
The connection between this is the neck.
Just near the neck, the tubule is highly coiled and this region
is called proximal convoluted tubule (PCT).

This leads to a ‘U’ shaped region of the tubule which enters

the medulla region of the kidney.

It takes a hairpin turn and returns to the cortex.

This middle region of tubule is called loop of Henle.
It has two limbs — a) thin walled descending limb and
b) thick walled ascending limb.
It is not permeable to water.
Henle’s loop is mainly meant for concentration of urine
After reentering the cortex the tubule again gets coiled to give
rise to the distal convoluted tubule (DCT).

It opens into a collecting tubule i.e; Duct of Bellini which

opens into the calyx at the apex of the medullary pyramid.
PCT shows the cells with brush border formed of microvilli.
Microvilli are absent in DCT.

The entire tubule is embedded within the network of

capillaries.
The efferent arteriole which leaves the glomerulus breaks up
into capillaries which form a network all over called peri
tubular capillaries.

These capillaries join to form a venule. Venules join to form a

renal vein.
DCT lies close to glomerulus of the same nephron and
forms a complex structure called juxta glomerular
apparatus.
Cells of JG apparatus secrete enzyme Renin that controls
blood pressure.
COMPOSITION AND FORMATION OF URINE:
Urine formation takes place in three stages-
i) Ultrafilteration
ii) Selective reabsorption
iii) Tubular secretion

Ultrafiltration:
It takes place in Malpighian body.
It is a physical process.
Glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule acts as filtering unit.
Capillaries of glomerulus are extremely porous or perforated.
These pores are 10 to 1000 times more permeable to water and
small molecules than other capillaries.
Blood cells , plasma proteins and large fat molecules are
unable to filter through glomerular capillaries.
The diameter of afferent arteriole is larger than that of the
efferent arteriole.
Blood enters the glomerulus at a faster rate than it leaves
it.
This creates a hydrostatic pressure within the glomerulus.

Glomerular membrane is semi permeable.

It allows only low molecular weight substances along with
water.
Bowman’s capsule is a double-walled cup-like structure.
Outer layer of Bowman’s capsule is called parietal layer lined
by squamous epithelium. Inner layer of Bowman’s capsule is
called visceral layer lined by squamous epithelium with
specialized cells called podocytes.
Podocytes are connected to the basement membrane by several
foot like processes.
The gaps between these processes are filtration slits.
The substances that can pass through the pores of endothelium
can also pass through these slits.

The filtrate can reach the urinary space of the Bowman’s

capsule.
High pressure of blood in the glomerular capillaries actually
forces certain substances to get out.
About 1/5 th of the volume of blood gets filtered.
The force is called effective filtration pressure
EFP is produced by the glomerular hydrostatic pressure is the
blood in the glomerular capillaries which is about 55 mmHg.

The osmotic pressure of blood which is 30 mmHg due to the

presence of plasma proteins

It opposes a capillary hydrostatic pressure.

The hydrostatic pressure of glomerular capsule is caused by

filtrate that reaches into the Bowman’s capsule.

It is about 15 mm Hg.
The net filtration pressure is =
Capillary hydrostatic pressure - (osmotic pressure +
filtrate hydrostatic pressure)
55-(30+15) =10 mmHg

About 125 ml per minute (180 liters per day) of filtrate is

formed.

It is called glomerular filtrate rate (GFR).

It takes only four minutes for the entire blood to pass through
glomeruli once .

Amount of blood passes through glomerulus varies from 600 -

650 ml per minute (1100-1200ml )
About 99% of filtrate is reabsorbed and only 1- 1.5 liters of
urine is formed

The composition of the filtrate is more or less similar to that of

body fluid.

It is blood plasma except proteins (deproteinised plasma)

Glucose, amino acid, salts, urea etc. are readily filtered.
Selective reabsorption:
By comparing the rate of production of filtrate with rate of
production of urine, we understand the rate of reabsorption.

About 99 % of filtrate is reabsorbed.

This process includes two processes depending upon
concentration gradient.
I) Passive transport or osmosis - along the concentration
gradient
II) Active Transport - against the concentration gradient by
using ATP molecules.
As the filtrate moves through renal tubule , it comes in
contact with blood found in peritubular capillaries. So,
exchange occurs between blood and filtrate

High threshold substances are completely reabsorbed

For eg.; glucose and amino acids.
Low threshold substances are uric acid and urea.

Water is reabsorbed by osmosis in PCT, DCT and descending

limb of loop of Henle, everywhere except in ascending limb
of loop of Henle.
It is called obligatory absorption of water.
PCT pumps out Other substances reabsorbed
glucose, by active transport include
amino acid and amino acids, sodium,
ions like potassium, calcium, potassium, and ions.
calcium, and
chloride ion Urea is reabsorbed because
are absorbed by diffusion urea molecule is very small
(Passive transport) and tubules are partially
permeable to it.

Potassium and chloride ions

are reabsorbed in DCT.
Tubular Secretion:
it is wrongly termed. The tubular cells do not synthesize any
material and add to the filtrate of urine.

Certain substances pass from the blood to the lumen of the

tubule.
The substances that are routinely secreted Creatinine,
potassium and hydrogen ions.

The secretion of hydrogen which takes place in DCT and

collecting tubule is important for homeostatic regulation of
acidity of blood.

Hydrogen ions are actively transported by the tubular cells

to the extent necessary to bring down its concentration in
blood to the regulation level.
Some abnormal substances found in the blood are also
secreted into urine.

The antibiotics like penicillin , iodine containing compound

iodopyracet are secreted out into urine

Aldosterone from adrenal gland (cortex) maintains sodium ion

concentration. Calcium ion cone, is maintained by calcitonin
and parathormone.
Composition of urine: ,
Composition of urine produced depends upon the food and
fluid consumed by the individual.

About 1.2 to 1.5 liters of urine per day is produced.

It is yellow in colour due to the presence of pigment called

urochrome.

It shows presence of 95% of water, organic substances like

urea (2.5%), uric acid, creatinine (formed in muscles )
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT):

PCT is lined by simple cuboidal brush border epithelium

which increases the surface area for reabsorption.

Nearly all of the essential nutrients, and 70-80 per cent of

electrolytes and water are reabsorbed by this segment.

PCT also helps to maintain the pH and ionic balance of the

body fluids by selective secretion of hydrogen ions, ammonia
and potassium ions into the filtrate and by absorption of
HCO3– from it.
Henle’s Loop:

Reabsorption is minimum in its ascending limb.

However, this region plays a significant role in the
maintenance of high osmolarity of medullary interstitial fluid.

The descending limb of loop of Henle is permeable to water

but almost impermeable to electrolytes.

This concentrates the filtrate as it moves down.

The ascending limb is impermeable to water but allows
transport of electrolytes actively or passively.

Therefore, as the concentrated filtrate pass upward, it gets

diluted due to the passage of electrolytes to the medullary
fluid
The medullary interstitium is the tissue surrounding the loop
of Henle in the renal medulla.

It functions in renal water reabsorption by building up a high

hypertonicity, which draws water out of the thin descending
limb of the loop of Henle and the collecting duct system.
Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT):

Conditional reabsorption of Na+ and water takes place in this

segment.

DCT is also capable of reabsorption of HCO3– and selective

secretion of hydrogen and potassium ions and NH3 to
maintain the pH and sodium-potassium balance in blood.
Collecting Duct:

This long duct extends from the cortex of the kidney to the
inner parts of the medulla.

Large amounts of water could be reabsorbed from this region

to produce a concentrated urine.

This segment allows passage of small amounts of urea into

the medullary interstitium to keep up the osmolarity.

It also plays a role in the maintenance of pH and ionic balance

of blood by the selective secretion of H+ and K+ ions
ROLE OF KIDNEY IN OSMOREGULA-TION:
Reabsorption of water takes place in renal tubule. Other wise
the body will get dehydrated.

So during reabsorption water balance of blood and body fluid

is maintained.

The hormones from pituitary called ADH or antidiuretic

hormone or vasopressin is released when the water content
of the body fluids is less than normal.

So the effect of the hormone is to increase the permeability

for water of DCT and collecting duct.
Hypothalamus releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin from
the neurohypophysis.
The JGA plays a complex regulatory role.
A fall in glomerular blood flow/glomerular blood
pressure/GFR can activate the JG cells to release renin which
converts angiotensinogen in blood to angiotensin I and
further to angiotensin II.

Angiotensin II, being a powerful vasoconstrictor, increases

the glomerular blood pressure and thereby GFR.

Angiotensin II also activates the adrenal cortex to release

Aldosterone.
Aldosterone causes reabsorption of Na+ and water from the
distal parts of the tubule. This also leads to an increase in
blood pressure and GFR.
This complex mechanism is generally known as the Renin-
Angiotensin mechanism.
An increase in blood flow to the atria of the heart can cause
the release of Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF).

ANF can cause vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels) and

thereby decrease the blood pressure.

ANF mechanism, therefore, acts as a check on the renin-

angiotensin mechanism.
Large amount of water is reabsorbed and is retained.

On the other hand higher amount of water in blood suppresses

ADH production resulting in decreased permeability for
water.

Therefore water is not reabsorbed and body fluid tend to

return to their regular level of concentration. Thus according
to needs of body the urine produced

Urine may be hypotonic or hypertonic in comparison to the

body fluids.
This type of absorption is called facultative absorption.
Low secretion of ADH causes diabetes insipidus.
Very dilute urine is excreted out and person feels thirsty.
KIDNEY FAILURE, DIALYSIS AND KID-NEY STONE,
TRANSPLANTATION
Renal failure or kidney failure (formerly called renal
insufficiency) describes a medical condition in which the
kidneys fail to adequately filter toxins and waste products
from the blood. The two forms are
1. Acute (acute kidney injury) and
2. Chronic (chronic kidney disease)

a number of other diseases or health problems may be caused

due to renal failure.
KIDNEY FAILURE, DIALYSIS AND KID-NEY STONE, TRANSPLANTATION
Biochemically, renal failure is typically detected by an
elevated serum Creatinine level.
Problems frequently encountered in kidney malfunction
include
abnormal fluid levels in the body,
deranged acid levels,
abnormal levels of potassium,
abnormal levels of calcium, phosphate, and
(in the longer term) anaemia.

Depending on the cause,

hematuria (blood loss in the urine) and
proteinuria (protein loss in the urine) may occur.

Long-term kidney problems have significant repercussions on other diseases, such as

cardiovascular disease
KIDNEY FAILURE, DIALYSIS AND KID-NEY STONE, TRANSPLANTATION
Types of Kidney failure:
Renal failure can be divided into two categories: acute kidney
injury or chronic kidney disease.

The type of renal failure is determined by the trend in the

serum Creatinine.

Other factors which may help differentiate acute kidney injury

from chronic kidney disease include
Anaemia
kidney size on ultrasound.

Chronic kidney disease generally leads to anaemia and

small kidney size.
KIDNEY FAILURE, DIALYSIS AND KID-NEY STONE, TRANSPLANTATION
Acute kidney injury:
Acute kidney injury (AKI), previously called acute renal
failure (ARF), is a rapidly progressive loss of renal function,
generally characterized by oliguria (decreased urine
production, quantified as
less than 400 ml per day in adults,
less than 0.5 mL/kg/ h in children or
less than 1 mL/kg/h in infants
body water and body fluids disturbances; and
electrolyte derangement.

AKI may result from a variety of causes, generally classified

as prerenal, intrinsic, and postrenal.
An underlying cause must be identified and treated to arrest the progress,
and dialysis may be necessary to bridge the time gap required for treating
KIDNEY FAILURE, DIALYSIS AND KID-NEY STONE, TRANSPLANTATION

Chronic kidney disease:

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) may develop slowly and
initially, show few symptoms. CKD can be the long term
consequence of irreversible acute disease or part of a disease
progression.
Dialysis (Artificial Kidney)
In medicine, dialysis (from Greek meaning dissolution) “dia”.
meaning through, and “lusis”, meaning loosening, is
primarily used to provide an artificial replacement for lost
kidney function in people with renal failure.

Dialysis may be used for those with an acute disturbance in

kidney function (acute kidney injury, previously acute renal
failure) or for those with progressive but chronically
worsening kidney function-a state known as chronic kidney
disease stage 5 (previously chronic renal failure or end-stage
kidney disease
Dialysis (Artificial Kidney)
The latter form may develop over months or years, but in
contrast to acute kidney injury is not usually reversible, and
dialysis is regarded as a “holding measure” until a renal
transplant can be performed, or sometimes as the only
supportive measure in those for whom a transplant would be
inappropriate.
Dialysis (Artificial Kidney)
Blood drained from a convenient artery is pumped into a
dialysing unit after adding an anticoagulant like heparin.

The unit contains a coiled cellophane tube surrounded by a

fluid (dialysing fluid) having the same composition as that of
plasma except the nitrogenous wastes.

The porous cellophane membrance of the tube allows the

passage of molecules based on concentration gradient.
As nitrogenous wastes are absent in the dialysing fluid, these
substances freely move out, thereby clearing the blood.

The cleared blood is pumped back to the body through a vein

after adding anti-heparin to it.
The kidneys have important roles in maintaining health. When
healthy, the kidneys maintain the body’s internal equilibrium
of water and minerals (sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium, sulphate).

Those acidic metabolism end products that the body cannot

get rid of via respiration are also excreted through the kidneys.

The kidneys also function as a part of the endocrine system

producing erythropoietin and calcitriol.

Erythropoietin is involved in the production of red blood cells

Calcitriol plays a role in bone formation.
Dialysis is an imperfect treatment to replace kidney function
because it does not correct the endocrine functions of the
kidney.

Dialysis treatments replace some of these functions through

diffusion (waste removal) and ultrafiltration (fluid
removal).
Kidney stones (ureterolithiasis) result from stones or renal
calculi (from Latin ren, renes, “kidney” and calculi, “pebbles”)
in the ureter.

The stones are solid concretions or calculi (crystal

aggregations) formed in the kidneys from dissolved urinary
minerals.

Nephrolithiasis refers to the condition of having kidney

stones.
Urolithiasis refers to the condition of having calculi in the
urinary tract (which also includes the kidneys), which may
form or pass into the urinary bladder.
Ureterolithiasis is the condition of having a calculus in the
ureter, the tube connecting the kidneys and the bladder.
or cystine stones.
There are several types of kidney stones based on the type of
crystals of which they consist.

The majority are calcium oxalate stones, followed by

calcium phosphate stones.

More rarely, struvite stones are produced by urea-splitting

bacteria in people with urinary tract infections, and people
with certain metabolic abnormalities may produce uric acid
stones or cystine stones.
REGULATION OF KIDNEY FUNCTIONS:
Functioning of the kidney is regulated by
1. hypothalamus
2. juxtra glomerular apperatus (JGA)and
3. heart.
Osmorecepters are present in hypothalamus.

High concentration of body fluid activates these

osmoreceptors to release Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)from
neurohypophysis.
ADH increases permeability of renal tubules for absorption
of water.
This prevents excess loss of water from body.
Increased volume of body fluid suppresses these
osmoreceptors and thus ADF secretion is suppressed.
ADH also constricts blood vessels and increases blood
pressure.
This results in increase in Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
JGA- A fall in GFR or glomerular blood pressure activates JG
cells to release Renin.

lt converts angiotensinogen of blood to angiotensin.

Angiotensin converting enzyme (secreted by lungs)

converts Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II.

Angiotensin II is vasoconstrictor and also stimulates adrenal

cortex to secrete aldosterone.
It increases blood pressure and GFR
An increase in blood flow to atria of the heart can cause
secretion of the atrial natriuretic factor (ANF).

ANF causes vasodilation and decreases blood pressure. so,

checks Renin-angiotensin mechanism.

The renin-angiotensin activates the renal retention of fluid so

that a fall in blood volume gets compensated.

High blood volume is responsible for increase in water

excretion which may be due to increased excretion of Na+ in
the urine.
It is known as natriuresis.
Increased Na+ excretion results in decline in aldosterone
secretion.

Hormone (factor) which stimulates natriuresis (antagonistic to

aldosterone) and promotes Na+ and water excretion in the
urine is Atrial Natriuretic Factor or hormone (ANF) .

Its secretion is in response to rise in blood volume.

The atria of the heart have been shown to produce ANF

hormone.
It is responsible for lowering of blood volume and blood
pressure by promoting salt and water excretion in the urine.
Uremia-
Normal value of urea in blood is 0.01 to 0.03%, but when the
level rises to above 0.05% then it is called uremia.

It is highly harmful and it may lead to kidney failure.

Nephritis or glomerulornephritis or Bright’s disease is the

term used for diseases that primarily involve renal
glomeruli like haematuria, proteinuria, hypertension,
oedema and oligouria.

Streptococcal glomerulornephritis is common form seen

mostly in children of 6 to 16 years.
It is due to infection of throat called Streptococcal pharyngitis.
 ACCESSORY EXCRETORY ORGANS:
Role of skin in excretion
Skin of many animals is thin and permeable.

It helps in diffusion of ammonia.

Human skin is thick, impermeable, and acts as accessory

excretory organ.

It shows presence of two types of skin glands -sweat glands

and sebaceous glands.

Sweat gland - these are distributed evenly over the body

surface.
They are abundant on palm and facial part.
These are simple unbranched tubular glands.

The sweat is aqueous fluid containing glucose, NaCl, water,

urea and lactic acid.

It also helps in thermoregulation.

Sebaceous glands - they secrete oily substance called

sebum.

It mixes with the sweat on the surface of the skin making the
skin softer and lubricating the hair.
It protects from any injury and infection.
Sebaceous glands eliminate certain substances like sterols,
hydrocarbons and waxes through sebum
Role of lungs in excretion
Lungs are the respiratory organs of the body.

Lungs play an important role in excretion of volatile

substances like CO2 and water vapour during respiration.

CO2 and water are produced during the process of oxidation

of glucose.

Most of the water is used for metabolic processes and

excess is thrown out in the form of water vapour and CO2
is removed along with expired air.

Our lungs remove large amounts of CO2 (approximately 200mL/

minute) and also significant quantities of water every day.
Liver, the largest gland in our body, secretes bile-containing
substances like bilirubin, biliverdin, cholesterol, degraded
steroid hormones, vitamins and drugs.

Most of these substances ultimately pass out along with

digestive wastes
In majority of nephrons, the loop of Henle is too short and
extends only very little into the medulla. Such nephrons are
called cortical nephrons.

In some of the nephrons, the loop of Henle is very long and

runs deep into the medulla. These nephrons are called juxta
medullary nephrons.

A minute vessel of this network runs parallel to the Henle’s

loop forming a ‘U’ shaped vasa recta.

Vasa recta is absent or highly reduced in cortical nephrons

Micturition
Urine formed by the nephrons is ultimately carried to the urinary bladder where it is
stored till a voluntary signal is given by the central nervous system (CNS).

This signal is initiated by the stretching of the urinary bladder

as it gets filled with urine.

In response, the stretch receptors on the walls of the

bladder send signals to the CNS.

The CNS passes on motor to initiate the contraction of smooth

muscles of the bladder and simultaneous relaxation of the
urethral sphincter causing the release of urine.

The process of release of urine is called micturition and the neural

mechanisms causing it is called the micturition reflex.
Osmoreceptors in the body are activated by
changes in blood volume,
body fluid volume and
ionic concentration.
The term derives from the form and function of the loop of Henle, which
consists of two parallel limbs of renal tubules running in opposite
directions, separated by the interstitial space of the renal medulla.

The descending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to water but

impermeable to solutes, due to the presence of aquaporin 1 in its tubular
wall.
Thus water moves across the tubular wall into the medullary space,
making the filtrate hypertonic (with a lower water potential).

This is the filtrate that continues to the ascending limb.

The ascending limb is impermeable to water (because of a lack

of aquaporin, a common transporter protein for water channels in all
cells except the walls of the ascending limb of the loop of Henle) but
permeable to solutes, but here Na+, Cl−, and K+ are actively transported
into the medullary space, making the filtrate hypotonic (with a higher
water potential).
The interstitium is now "salty" or hypertonic, and will attract water as
below.
This constitutes the single effect of the countercurrent multiplication
process.

Active transport of these ions from the thick ascending limb creates
an osmotic pressure drawing water from the descending limb into the
hyperosmolar medullary space, making the filtrate hypertonic (with a
lower water potential).

The countercurrent flow within the descending and ascending limb thus
increases, or multiplies the osmotic gradient between tubular fluid
and interstitial space.

Osmolarity increasing towards the inner medullary

interstitium, i.e., from 300 mOsmolL–1 in the cortex to about
1200 mOsmolL–1 in the inner medulla.
The ascending limb of the loop of Henle transports solutes
(NaCl) out of the tubule lumen with little or no water,
generating an hyperosmotic medullary interstitium and
delivering an hyposmotic tubule fluid to the distal tubule. This
is called the "single effect".