Respiratory System

Presented By:
Mr. Kiran D. Baviskar,
Assist. Professor
Dept. of Pharmaceutics,

Smt. Sharadchandrika Suresh Patil College of Pharmacy, Chopda.

INTRODUCTION
All living animals require energy to perform different
activities. “Do you know, what is the source of this energy ?
How is this energy produced in the body?

In the body of an animal, such energy is produced during the

process of respiration.

Respiration can be defined as a biochemical process by

which organic compound (foods) are oxidized to liberate
chemical energy.

This chemical energy if released at once might result in a brief

blast of light and heat and may lead to death of the cell.
Hence the energy is released in a step-wise process.
The energy released is trapped in chemical bonds of
adenosine triphosphate- the ATP molecules.

The energy obtained from the ATP molecules is called

biologically useful energy because it drives all ‘die life
processes.

When a cell requires energy, hydrolysis of ATP converts it to

ADP (adenosine biphosphate) and energy is released.
In the process of respiration, respiratory organs, blood and the
body cells play an important role.
Respiratory organs’ supply oxygen and remove water and
carbon-dioxide.
Blood transports the gases from the respiratory organs to the
tissue cells and vice versa.
Cells of the body oxidize the food and produce energy.

RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS:
Single-celled organisms exchange gases directly across their
cell membrane.
However, the slow diffusion rate of oxygen relative to carbon
dioxide limits the size of single-celled organisms.
Respiratory Surfaces-
Terrestrial animals which cannot maintain gaseous exchange
by diffusion across their outer surface, have developed a
variety of respiratory surfaces covered with thin, moist
epithelial cells that allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to
exchange.
Methods of Respiration-
Sponges and jellyfish lack specialized organs. The gaseous
exchange takes place directly from the surrounding water.
Flatworms and annelids use their outer surfaces for gas
exchange.
Some arthropods, some annelids’, and fish use gills
terrestrial vertebrates use internal lungs.
Amphibians use their skin as a respiratory surface.
Frogs eliminate carbon dioxide 2.5 times as fast through their
skin as they do through their lungs.

Eel (a fish) obtains 60% of its oxygen through the skin.

Humans exchange only 1% of their carbon- dioxide through

then- skin.
Typically gills are organized into a series of plates and may be
internal (as in crabs and fish) or external to the body (as in
some amphibians).

Gills are very efficient in removing oxygen from water.

There is only l/20th amount of oxygen present in water as

compared to the same volume of air.

Water flows over gills in one direction white blood flows in

the opposite direction through gill capillaries.

This counter current flow maximizes oxygen transfer.

Many terrestrial animals have their respiratory surfaces inside
the body and are connected to the outside by a series of tubes
called tracheae.

Reptiles, birds and mammals respire through lungs as an

adaptation for terrestrial life.
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:
Human respiratory system includes
Nostrils,
Nasal chambers,
Pharynx,
Larynx,
Trachea,
Bronchi
Bronchioles,
Lungs,
Diaphragm and
Inter-costal muscles.
Nostrils and Nasal chambers:
Nostrils are the external openings of the nose through which
oxygen rich air is taken inside the body and carbon dioxide
rich air containing water vapour is expelled outside the body.
These are also called external nares.

Similarly a pair of internal openings is present.

They open into pharynx. These are called internal nares.

The space between the external and internal nares is known as

nasal chamber.
Internally, each one is lined by a mucous membrane and
ciliated epithelium.
It is divided into right and left parts by a cartilage known as
mesethmoid.
Each nasal chamber is further divided into three regions:

Vestibule:
This is the arteriormost part of the nasal chamber.
It has hair to trap dust particles and prevent them from going
inside.

Respiratory part:
This is the part richly supplied with capillaries.
It warms the air and makes it moist. (humidification)
(increase in temp. by 3-4 0C and mixing of water vapour with
entrapped air)

Sensory part:
This is lined by sensory epithelium for detection of smell.
Pharynx:
Nasal chamber opens into the pharynx.

It is a short, vertical tube measuring about 12 cm. in length.

The respiratory and the food passages cross each other in the
pharynx by two separate passages.

Its upper part is known as naso-pharynx which helps in

conduction of air and the lower part is called laryngo-
pharynx or oro-pharynx conducting food to oesophagus.

In the pharynx, there are tonsils which are made up of

lymphatic tissue.

They kill bacteria trapped in the mucous.

Larynx:
It is the sound producing organ.

In males, the larynx increases in size at the time of puberty.

Hence, it is called Adam’s apple and can be noticed in the
neck region.
From the pharynx, air enters into the larynx through an
opening called glottis.
The glottis is guarded by a flap called epiglottis.
It prevents the entry of food particles into the Respiratory
passage.
Along the sides of the glottis are two folds of elastic tissue
called vocal, cords.
These are responsible for producing sound.
Trachea:
It is also known as windpipe.
It is about 12 cms long and 2.5 cms wide.
It lies in front of the oesophagus and extends downward into
the neck.

The wall of the trachea is made up of fibrous muscular tissue

supported by ‘C’- shaped cartilage rings.
These are 16-26 in number.
They make the trachea rigid.

The trachea is internally lined with ciliated epithelium and

mucous glands.
If any foreign particle enters, it is immediately expelled out by
coughing action.
Dust particles , get trapped by the mucous.
By ciliary movement, they are swept towards the larynx and
finally they enter the oesophagus.
Bronchi and bronchioles:
The distal end of the trachea is divided into two bronchi
behind; the sternum.

Each bronchus is supported by a complete ring of

cartilage.

It enters into the lung of its respective side.

On entering the lung, each bronchus further divides into

secondary and then tertiary bronchi.
Tertiary; bronchi divide into many minute bronchioles.
Wall of each bronchiole does not have cartilage rings.
Each bronchiole ends into a balloon- like alveolus.
These alveoli make the lungs spongy and elastic.
Lungs:
These are the principal respiratory organ’s.
Lungs are paired, hollow, elastic organs.
They are located in the thoracic cavity.
Each lung is enclosed in a pleural sac.
It is made up of two membranes, outer parietal and inner
visceral.
The enclosed cavity is called the pleural cavity.
It is filled with a pleural fluid, which lubricates the pleura and
prevents the friction when the pleural membranes slide over
each other.
Lungs are pink in colour, soft, elastic and distensible.
They are highly vascular (richly supplied with blood
capillaries).
The left lung is divided into two lobes.
The right lung is divided into three lobes.
Each lobe consists of bronchioles which terminate in a bunch
of spherical thin walled air sacs called alveolar sacs.
Each sac has about twenty alveoli which look like grapes.
They are covered with a network of capillaries from the
pulmonary artery and vein.
Alveoli have very thin highly elastic walls. 0.1 mm in
diameter.
The 750 million alveoli, which area for exchange of gases.
The total covered by them is about SO times the surface area
of skin.
The outermost covering of the lungs is made up of smooth
muscle fibres called visceral pleura.
In the ulterior, there are many lobules.
Each lobule contains the
•alveolar ducts,
•alveolar sacs and
•alveoli
The alveoli have very thin (0.0001 mm) wall composed of
simple non-ciliated, squamous epithelium.
It has collagen and elastin fibres.
This makes the alveoli very flexible.
Alveoli are supplied by a network of pulmonary capillaries.
MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION:
The term respiration includes a complete process of taking in
oxygen and giving out carbon dioxide.
It includes
Breathing,
External respiration,
Internal respiration and
Cellular respiration.
Breathing:
The process by which air comes in and goes out of the lungs is
called breathing.

It is the process that speeds up the rate of gaseous exchange.

The terms respiration and breathing are not synonymous as

breathing is a part of respiration.

Breathing includes inspiration and expiration.

During inspiration air containing oxygen is taken into the

lungs while during expiration air containing more carbon-
dioxide and water vapour is forced out of the lungs.
Inspiration: It occurs in the following steps:
It is an active process brought about by
ribs,
intercostal muscles,
sternum and
diaphragm.
The intercostal muscles contract, pulling the ribs outward
and increase the space in the thoracic cavity.
The lower part of the breast bone (sternum) is also raised.
The diaphragm contracts and becomes almost flat.
Volume of the thoracic cavity is further increased.
Pressure on the lungs decreases.
The lungs expand and their volume increases.
Atmospheric air rushes into the lungs through the
respiratory passage to make the pressure equal.
Thus the air enters the lungs.
Expiration: It takes place in following steps:
It is a passive process.
The inter-costal muscles relax pulling the ribs inwards.
The diaphragm relaxes and again becomes dome-shaped.
Thus collective contraction of intercostal muscle and
diaphragm reduces the volume of the thoracic cavity.
The pressure on the lungs increases.
The lungs get compressed and the air in the lungs, rushes
out through the external nares.
Alternate inspiration and expiration together form the
respiratory cycle.
It occurs 16-20 times per minute in man.
Breathing is under the control of the medulla oblongata of
the brain.
Regulation breathing:
Contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles is
under the control of medulla oblangata.

Breathing is controlled by rhythm centre of medulla and

pneumotaxic centre of pons.

Receptor cells in aorta and carotid artery detect changes in

CO2 and H+ concentration.

Increase in their concentration stimulates pneumotaxis

centre of pons, which activates rhythm centre.

It brings about necessary changes in the rate of breathing.

TRANSPORT OF GASES:
The transport of respiratory (O2 and CO2) gases takes place in
the following events-
• External respiration,
• Internal respiration,
• Cellular respiration.

External respiration:
It includes the respiratory processes which take place in the
lungs.
Oxygen from the lungs diffuses in the lung capillaries and
similarly CO2 from the lung capillaries diffuses into lungs
depending on partial pressure of each gas. (Partial pressure is
the pressure contributed by the individual gas in a mixture of
gases.)
External respiration includes three events:
a. Exchange of gases:
Concentration of oxygen is higher in the
inspired air (Po2= 104mmHg) than in the
alveolar blood (Po2 = 40mmHg) and the

concentration of carbon-dioxide is higher in the

alveolar blood (Pco2 = 45mmHg) than in the
inspired air (Pco2 = 40mmHg).

This results in the exchange of oxygen from the air into the
blood and carbon-dioxide from blood into the air which is
exhaled out.
b. Formation of oxy-haemoglobin:
The absorbed oxygen combines with the haemoglobin of
RBCs.
Haemoglobin is a respiratory protein pigment.
It forms the unstable oxy-haemoglobin
Oxygen + Haemoglobin = Oxyhaemoglobin

Hb + 4O2 = Hb (4O2)
b. Release of carbon-di-oxide:
Carbon-dioxide from the blood is released in the air.
CO2 is brought by the blood from the tissue cells in the form
of sodium and potassium bicarbonates in the blood plasma.
Some amount of CO2 is also brought by haemoglobin in the
from of carbamino-haemoglobin.
CO2 brought in all these forms is released.
The bicarbonates break down to liberate carbonic acid.

NaHCO3 H+ H2CO3
(Sodium bicarbonate)
Na+ + (Carbonic acid)

H+
KHCO3 K+ + H2CO3
(Potassium bicarbonate) (Carbonic acid)
Carbonic acid breaks down to form CO2 and water.

H2CO3 H2O + CO2

(Carbonic acid)

Carbamino-haemoglobin also release CO2.

HbCO2 Hb + CO2
Internal respiration:
It includes the respiratory processes which take place in the
tissue cells.
Oxygen brought by the blood is given to the tissue cells
(Po2 = 95mmHg) and

carbon-dioxide from the tissues

(Pco2 = 40mmHg), is passed into the blood.

When the blood reaches the tissue cells, the unstable oxy-
haemoglobin breaks down to form haemoglobin and oxygen.
1. Carbon-dioxide dissolves in the cellular fluid and passes
into the plasma. CO2 dissolves in the water to form carbonic
acid
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Carbonic acid reacts with sodium and potassium to convert it
into sodium and potassium bicarbonates respectively.

About 80% to 85% carbon-dioxide is carried by the blood

in the form of bicarbonates.

2. A small amount of carbon-dioxide combines with

haemoglobin to form carbamino-haemoglobin.

3. Some carbon-dioxide dissolves in the plasma which is

carried to the lungs.
Carbonic acid reacts with sodium and potassium to convert it
into sodium and potassium bicarbonates respectively.

About 80% to 85% carbon-dioxide is carried by the blood

in the form of bicarbonates.

2. A small amount of carbon-dioxide combines with

haemoglobin to form carbamino-haemoglobin.

3. Some carbon-dioxide dissolves in the plasma which is

carried to the lungs.
Cellular respiration:
The ultimate purpose of respiration is to release energy.

This is carried out in the cells by oxidation of food.

It results in the formation of ATP molecules.

Energy is stored in this form.

This energy is used to carry out vital life processes.

So ATP is called energy currency of cell.
Cellular respiration takes place mainly in the mitochondria of
cells.

ATP is formed as the main product while by products are CO2

and water vapor which are transported by the blood to the
lungs.

Energy released as heat to certain extent is used to maintain

the body temperature.
Regulation of respiration:
A chemo sensitive area is situated adjacent to the respiratory
rhythm centre, (in the medulla oblongata region)

It is highly sensitive to CO2 and H+ Increase in these

substances can activate this centre which in turn Sends signals
to the rhythm centre to make necessary adjustments.

In addition to these areas, chemoreceptors like the carotid

bodies (located at the branching of carotid artery) and the
aortic bodies are also present .
These receptors detect decrease in CO2 and trigger increase-in
fate and depth of respiration.

The volume of air involved in breathing movements can be

estimated by using a spirometer which helps in clinical
assessment of pulmonary functions.
Respiratory Volumes:
Tidal Volume (TV):
It is the volume of air breathed in and out during effortless
breathing. In an adult it is about 500 ml.

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV):

Volume of air during forced inspiration is called inspiratory
reserve volume. It is about 2500 ml to 3000 ml.

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV):

Volume of air during forced expiration is called expiratory
reserve volume. It is about 1000 ml.
Residual Volume (RV):
The volume of air left behind in the lungs and respiratory
passage after forced expiration is called residual volume.
It is about 1000 ml.
Vital Capacity (VC):
It is the total volume of air expired after a maximum
inspiration.
This includes ERV, TV and IRV
Carbon monoxide poisoning:
Hemoglobin has about 250 times more affinity for carbon
monoxide than for oxygen.
In the presence of carbon monoxide, it readily combines to
form a stable compound called carboxyhemoglobin.
The oxygen combining capacity with Hb decreases and as a
result tissues suffer from oxygen starvation.
It leads to asphyxiation and iri extreme cases to death.
The person needs to be administered with pure oxygen-carbon
dioxide mixture to have a very high PO2 level to dissociate
carbon monoxide from haemoglobin.
Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs often in closed rooms with
open stove burners or furnaces or in garages having running
automobile engines.
RESPIRATORY DISORDERS:
1. Asthma:
Asthma is an inflammatory disease of the airways
associated with episodes of reversible over-reactivity of the
airway smooth muscle.

The mucous membrane and muscle layers of the bronchi

become thickened and the mucous glands enlarge reducing
airflow in the lower respiratory tract.

During an asthmatic attack, spasmodic contraction of

bronchial muscle (Bronchospasm) constricts the airway and
there is excessive secretion of thick sticky mucus, which
further narrows the airway.
Inspiration is normal but. only partial expiration is achieved so
that lungs become hyperinflated and there is severe dysponea
and wheezing.

The duration of attacks usually varies from a few minutes to

hours (status asthmaticus).

In severe attacks the bronchi may be obstructed by mucus

plugs, leading to acute respiratory failure, hypoxia and
possibly death.

Non - specific factors that may precipitate asthma attacks

include: Cold air, cigarette, smoking, air pollution, upper
respiratory tract infection, emotional stress and strenuous
exercise.
Occupational lung diseases:
This group of lung diseases is caused by inhaling atmospheric
pollutants at work place.

To cause disease, particles must be so small that they are

carried in Inspired air to the level of the respiratory
bronchioles and alveoli, where they can only be cleared by
phagocytosis.

Larger particles are trapped by mucus in upper part of the

respiratory tract and expelled by ciliary action and coughing.

Recognition of the damaging effects of these substances has

led to legislation that limits workers exposure to these
pollutants.
Silicosis:
This may be caused by long-term exposure to dust containing
silicon compounds.

High-risk industries are quarrying, granite, slate, sandstone,

mining, stone masonry, sand blasting and glass and pottery
work.

Inhaled silica particles accumulate in the alveoli. The particles

are ingested by macrophages, and are actively toxic to these
cells.

The inflammatory reaction is triggered when the macrophages

destroy the particles and this results in significant fibrosis.
Silicosis appears to predispose to the development of
tuberculosis, which rapidly progresses to tubercular
bronchopneumonia and possibly military TB.

Gradual destruction of lung tissue leads to progressive

reduction in pulmonary function, pulmonary hypertension and
heart failure.
Asbestosis:

Asbestosis, caused by inhaling asbestos fibres, usually

develops after 10 to 20 years’ exposure, but sometimes after
only 2 years.

Asbestos miners and workers involved in making and using

some products containing asbestos are at risk.

There are different types of asbestosis but blue asbestosis is

associated with the most serious disease.
Emphysema:
Emphysema is a long-term , progressive disease of the lungs
that primarily causes shortness of breath due to over-inflation
of the alveoli (air sacs in the lung).

In people having emphysema, the alveoli of lungs are impaired

or destroyed.

This disease is included in a group of diseases called chronic

obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

It is an obstructive lung disease because airflow is reduced or

stopped.
Emphysema changes the anatomy of die lung in several
important ways.

When the alveoli are damaged, the airways collapse.

This makes it difficult for the lungs to empty the air (gases)
and the air is trapped in the alveoli.