Cell Specialisation in Multicellular Organisms

1. Multicellular organisms are organisms that consists of more

than one cell.
2. Human and other multicellular organisms begin life as a
single cell known as a zygote, which is the result of
fertilisation between an ovum and sperm.
3. The zygote then divides into two identical cells, which in
turn divide to become four cells, and so on until eventually
it forms a ball of cells known as an embryo.

zygote embryo

4. These cells grow, change shape and adapt themselves to

carry out specific functions.
5. They differentiate and become specialised in order to
perform specific tasks more efficiently.
6. Different types of cells have particular structures to help
them to carry out specific tasks and functions.
7. Cells which have become differentiated and specialised to
carry out particular tasks are organised into tissues.
8. A tissue is a group of cells which are similar in structure
and are designed to perform a specialised function.
9. Different types of tissues come together to form organs.
10. An organ is a group of tissues that cooperate closely to
perform a specialised function.
11. Several organs are organised into a system.
12. Various systems make up the organism.
13. The different levels of cell organisation that make up a
multicellular organism are as follows:
Example:
Cells Red blood cells

Tissues Blood

Organs Heart

Systems Circulatory system

Multicellular organism
 The Necessity for Cell Specification and
Cell Organisation
1. Cell specification is a process of change and adaptation that
a cell undergoes to give it special structures and specific
functions.
2. Cell specification is important to multicellular organisms as
complex organisms require various types of tissues, organs
and system to function.
3. Without cell specification, an organism will not able to
survive or sustain life.
4. Organisation into cells, tissues, organs and systems is essential
to multicellular organisms because:
a) A group of cells or tissues are able to carry out specific
function more efficiently compared to a single cell.
b) The division of work among cells enable the organisms to
carry out the various tasks and functions in orderly and
systematic manner.
c) All living processes can be carried out more efficiently
and this enables them to achieve a higher growth rate.
d) Organisms are able to adapt and survive in diverse
habitats and environments.
Nerve cells – Nerve Muscle cells – They are
cells have long, thin usually long with multiple nuclei
fibres called axons and contain protein fibres.
which conduct nerve These fibres can contract to
impulses throughout produce movement.
the body.
Sperm cells – Have long tails and a
high density of mitochondria which
allow them to swim forwards the
ovum. The nucleus contains
chromosomes from the male parent.

Epithelial cells – Epithelial cells

with simple glands are found in the
intestines. Their functions is to
secrete mucus. The epithelial layer
is highly folded with the secretory
cells arranged the surface area for
mucus secretion.

RBC – The shape are like a biconcave disc and do not have nuclei.
This increases the surface area of the cell and allows oxygen to
diffuse into the whole cell at a faster rate.
WBC – Can change their shape easily to move through the walls of
blood vessels and migrate to the sites of injuries to fight infections.
Cell Organisation in Humans and Animals
TISSUES
1. Tissues are groups of specialised cells with a common
structure and function. Different types of tissues have
different structures that are suited to their functions.
2. There are four major types of tissues in animals:

a) Epithelial tissues
b) Muscle tissues
c) Connective tissues
d) Nerve tissues

3. The functions of each type of tissue are as follows:

EPITHELIAL TISSUES
 Epithelial tissues consist of one or more layers of cells.
 The cells of an epithelium are tightly interconnected, with
little space between them.
 They form a continuous layer over body surfaces, and inner
lining of cavities.
 Some epithelial tissues also form glands.
 The structure of epithelial tissue is adapted to its function.
 Epithelial cells carry out functions associated with
protection, secretion and absorption.
Types of epithelial tissues
Epithelial tissues
The epithelial tissue at the
surface of the skin and lining of
the mouth and oesophagus.
The epithelial tissue at the
lining of body cavities, heart,
blood vessels and lungs.
The epithelial tissue at the
lining of the small intestine.
The epithelial tissue at the
lining of glands, ducts and
kidney tubules.
The epithelial tissue at the
lining of the trachea.
Adaptations and functions
•Form a protective barrier against infections, mechanical
injuries, chemicals and dehydration. They also regulate body
temperature.
•The epithelial cells which line the alveoli of the lungs and
form the walls of blood capillaries are thin, flattened and
arranged in a single layer.
•This adaptation allows the exchange of gases between the
alveoli and the blood in the capillaries to take place efficiently.
•The epithelial cells in the lining of the small intestine absorb
nutrients after digestion is completed.
•Epithelial cells may undergo modification to form mucus-
secreting goblet cells which secrete mucus into the digestive
tract.
•Certain epithelial tissues are modified to form glands in the
skin, for example, sweat glands and sebaceous (oil secreting)
glands.
•The epithelial tissue that line the trachea consists of
elongated cells with hair-like projections called cilia. They also
secrete mucus.
•The mucus traps dust particles while the cilia sweep the
impurities away from the lungs.
MUSCLE TISSUES
 Muscle is the most abundant tissue in most animals.
 Muscle tissues are composed of long cells called muscle
fibres.
 There are three types of muscle tissues: smooth muscles,
skeletal muscles and cardiac muscles.
Types of muscle tissues
Smooth muscles are found
along the walls of the digestive
tract, blood vessels, bladder
and reproductive tract.
Skeletal muscles are attached
to the bones of the skeleton.
Cardiac muscles form the
contractile wall of the heart.
Functions
Responsible for the involuntary actions of the body. For
example, when the smooth muscles of the intestine contract,
food is moved along the digestive tract.
Also responsible for the churning action of the stomach and
the constriction of the arteries.
Smooth muscles contract more slowly than skeletal muscles
but remain contracted for longer period of time.
Responsible for the voluntary movements of the body.
Contractions of skeletal muscles produce movements of
various body parts.
Contract to pump blood to all parts of the body.
Contractions of cardiac muscles are involuntary.
NERVE TISSUES
 Nerve tissues are composed of neurones, or nerve cells.
 Each neurone consists of a cell body and nerve fibres called
dendrites and axons.
 Neurones are specialised to transmit signal called nerve
impulses over long distances.
 Nerve tissues control and coordinate activities of the body.
 There are three types of neurones: afferent neurones,
efferent neurones and interneurones.
Types of neurones Functions
Motor Neurone:
Efferent Neuron –
Moving toward a
central organ or point.
Relays messages from
the brain or spinal cord
to the muscles and
organs.
Sensory Neurone:
Afferent Neuron –
Moving away from a
central organ or point.
Relays messages from
receptors to the brain
or spinal cord.
Interneuron (relay
neurone):
Relays message from
sensory neurone to
motor neurone.
Make up the brain and
spinal cord.
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
 Connective tissues consist of various types of cells and
fibres separated by an extracellular matrix. They are widely
distributed and have many functions.
 The connective tissue which underlines epithelial tissues
consists of a network of collagen, capillaries and spaces
filled with fluid.
 Examples of connective tissues are tendons, ligaments,
cartilage, bones, blood, lymph and adipose tissue.
 Connective tissues, with the exception of blood and
lymph, are interwoven with fibrous strands called collagen.
Types of connective tissues
Types of connective tissues Functions
Cartilage tissue When the collagen fibres are densely packed, they form
tendons and ligaments.
Tendons attach muscles to bones.
Ligaments attach bones to bones.
Cartilage is a strong yet flexible connective tissue.
Cartilage provides support to the nose, ears, and covers the
ends of bones at joints.
Cartilage also forms discs between vertebrae. This enables
them to act as cushions to absorb pressure.

Bones consist of cells Bones provide protection to organs in the body and support
embedded in a matrix of the body.
collagen hardened by mineral
deposits such as calcium. This
combination makes the bones
harder than cartilage.
Types of connective tissue
Lymph consists mostly of fluid
which leaks out of blood
capillaries.
Blood consists of red and
white blood cells and cell
fragments called platelets,
suspended in a fluid called
blood plasma.
Blood cells are produced in
the bone marrow, located at
the ends of long bones.
Functions
Blood has regulating, transporting and protective functions.
It transports nutrients and oxygen to cells and removes carbon
dioxide and waste products from the cells.
It helps distribute heat throughout the body and contains
regulatory substances such as hormones and enzymes.
Red blood cells transport oxygen, white blood cells assist in
fighting infections while platelets aid in blood clotting.

Fat cells or adipose cells are Adipose tissue stores energy and insulate the body.
tightly packed. They can be
found in the dermis of the
skin.