RADIATION

HEAT TRANSFER
 Radiation
Thermal radiation is the energy emitted by matter
as a result of its finite temperature. Any matter
with temperature above absolute zero (0 K) emits
electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic
radiation can be visualized as waves traveling at
the speed of light, thus, radiation is a surface
phenomenon.
Electromagnetic radiation is categorized into
types by their wavelengths.
 Types of Radiation

The type of radiation emitted by a body depends on its

temperature. The hotter the object is, the shorter the
wavelength and the greater its amount.
 Mechanism of Radiation
1. The thermal energy of the hot source at T1 is
converted into energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
2. These waves travel through intervening space
in straight lines and strike a cold object at T2.
3. The electromagnetic waves that stikes the
body are absorbed by the body and converted
back to thermal energy or heat.
 Mechanism of Radiation
The amount of radiation emitted by a body
depends on its temperature, and is proportional to
T4. when this radiation strikes a surface, a portion
of it is reflected, and the rest enters the surface.
On the portion that enters, some are absorbed by
the material, and the remaining radiation is
transmitted through.
Blackbody emissive power (W/m2) depends on

Eb   T
temperature (T) of surface 4
Mechanism of Radiation
 Mechanism of Radiation
The ratio of reflected energy to the incident
energy is called reflectivity, ρ. Similarly,
transmitivity (τ) and absorptivity (α) are defined
as the fraction of the incident energy that is
transmitted through or absorbed by the object.
Irradiation = the total amount of incident
radiation that strikes a surface
Radiosity = the sum of the radiation emitted by
a surface and the fraction of irradiation that is
reflected by the surface.
 Mechanism of Radiation

• E = emissive power e = emissivity

• G = total irradiation
  e
• J = total radiosity
In general:
 = absorptivity      1
 = reflectivity
Opaque material:
 = transmissivity
   1
 Energy
Schematic Ideal Emitter
T3> T2> T1
T3

El T2

T1

l
 Black Body
A body that is assumed to absorb all radiant energy
and does not reflect any is called a black body.
Such a body also emits radiation. The ratio of the
emissive power of a surface to that of a black body
is called emissivity (ε) and is equal to 1.0 for a
black body. According to Kirchhoff’s law,
emissivity and absorptivity of a surface in
surroundings at its own temperature are the same
for both monochromatic and total radiation; thus
for a given surface at thermal radiation
α=ε
 Black Body
At thermal equilibrium
• emissivity of surface = absorptivity
e = 
• transmissivity of solid surfaces = 0
• emissivity is the only significant parameter
• emissivities vary from 0.1 (polished surfaces) to
0.95 (blackboard)
• Radiation of a single wavelength is called
monochromatic.
 Black Body
The black body is an idealized surface having the
following properties:
• Perfect absorber: it absorbs all incident radiation of
wavelength and direction
• Perfect emitter: for a prescribed temperature and
wavelength, no surface can emit more than a black body.
• Although the radiation emitted by a black body is a
function of wavelength and temperature, it is independent
of direction. That is, the black body is a diffuse emitter.
INTENSITY FOR DIFFUSE
BLACKBODY RADIATION
 Black Body
• Black Body
– absorptivity =  1  e 1
– emissivity = e 1 eb  T 4
– ideal emissive power = eb
  f l 
• Gray Body
e  f l 
– absorptivity < 1
– emissivity < 1 e gray  eeb
– emissive power<1 e gray  eT 4
 Energy
Schematic e gray
e
eblack
Black  e
e  f l 
Body

el Gray
Body

Real
Body

l
The total incident radiant energy upon a body which
partially reflects, absorbs and transmits radiant energy is
2200 W/m2. of this amount, 450 W/m2 is reflected and
900 W/m2 is absorbed by the body. Find the transmitivity.

τ = 1 – ρ – α = 1 – 450/2200 – 900/2200 = 0.386

Determine the total emissive power of a blackbody at

1000OC

Eb = σT4 = 5.67 x 10-8 (1273.15K)4 = 149 kW/m2

All Real Surfaces are “Gray”

IRRADIATION, INCIDENT
RADIATION
 Emissive Power
The total energy emitted by a body, regardless
of the wavelengths, is given by:

q1S  e1 A T  T
1
4
S
4

Where:
ε = emissivity
A = surface area exposed
T = absolute temperature
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
σ = 5.67 x10-8 W/m2.K4 = 0.1714 x 10-8 Btu/hr.ft2.OR4
 Emissive Power
The total energy absorbed a body, regardless of
the wavelengths, is given by:

Where:
q1S  A T  
S
4

α = absorptivity
A = surface area exposed
T = absolute temperature
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
σ = 5.67 x10-8 W/m2.K4 = 0.1714 x 10-8 Btu/hr.ft2.OR4
In the summer, parked automobile surfaces average to 40 –
50OC. Assuming 45OC and surface emissivity of 0.9,
determine the radiant thermal flux emitted by a car roof.
q/A = εσT4 = 0.9 (5.67 x 10-8) (45 + 273.15)4
= 522 W/m2
After sunset, radiant energy can be sensed by a person
standing near a brick wall. Such walls frequently have
surface temperature around 44OC, and typical brick
emissivity values are on the order of 0.92. what would be
the radiant thermal flux per square meter from a brick wall
at this temperature?
q/A = εσT4 = 0.92 (5.67 x 10-8) (44 + 273.15)4
= 527 W/m2
 LAWS OF BLACKBODY RADIATION
By Plack’s Law
Wb,λ = 2πhc2λ-5
ehc/kλT -1
Wb,λ = monochromatic emissive power of blackbody
h = Planck’s constant
c = speed of light
λ = wavelength of radiation
k = Boltzmann’s constant
T = absolute temperature
 WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW

Or Wb,λ = C1λ-5 C1 = 3.742 x 10-16 W. m2

eC2/λT -1 C2 = 14390 μm.K
 WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW
At any given temperature, the maximum monochromatic
radiating power is attained at a definite wavelength, denoted
by λmax.
Tλmax = C
Where:
C = 2890 when λmax is in μm and T in Kelvins
or 5200 when T is in degrees Rankine

Monochromatic emissivity, ελ = Eλ
Ebλ
Where Eλ = emissive power of real surface at λ
Ebλ = emissive power of a blackbody, both at
the same temperature
For a blackbody maintained at 115OC, determine
a) the total emissive power
b) the wavelength at which the maximum monochromatic
emissive power occurs and
c) the maximum monochromatic emissive power
a) Eb = σT4 = 5.67 x 10-8 (115 + 273.15)4
= 1287.0085 W/m2
b) λmaxT = Eb = C λmax = 2890 μm . K
(115 + 273.15)
= 7.4456 μm
c) Eb, λ = C1λ-5 = 3.742 x 10 -16 W.m2
eC2/λT -1 λ5 (1x10-6)4[e [(14390/7.4456(388.15)] -1]
= 113.2804 W/m2.μm
 RADIATION, CONDUCTION, CONVECTION
A small oxidized horizontal metal tube with an OD of 0.0254
m and being 0.61 m long with a surface temperature at 588K is
in a very large furnace enclosure with fire-brick walls and the
surrounding air at 1088 K. The emissivity of the metal tube is
0.60 at 1088 K and 0.46 at 588K. Calculate the heat transfer to
the tube by radiation using SI.

A = πDL = π(0.0254 m) (0.61m ) = 0.0487 m2

q = Aεσ(T14–T24) = 0.0487(0.6)(5.67x10-8)(5884 –10884) W

= -2122.45175 W
 RADIATION, CONDUCTION, CONVECTION

Recalculate previous example problem for combined radiation

plus natural convection to horizontal tube.

hconvection = 1.32 ΔT ¼ = 1.32 (1088 – 588) ¼ =15.6354 W/m2.K

D 0.0254

hradiation = εσ(T14 – T24) = 0.60(5.67 x 10-8)(10884 – 5884) = 87.2076

T1 – T2 (1088 – 588)

q = (hc + hr) A (T1 – T2) = (102.843) (0.0487)(588 – 1088)

= -2502.9840 W
 RADIATION, CONDUCTION, CONVECTION

A 0.5 m diameter pipe (ε = 0.9) carrying steam has a surface

temperature of 500 K. The pipe is located in a room at 300 K,
and the convection heat transfer coefficient between the pipe
surface and the air in the room is 20 W/m2.K. Calculate the
combined heat transfer coefficient and the rate of heat loss per
meter of pipe length.
hradiation = εσ(T14 – T24) = 0.90(5.67 x 10-8)(5004 – 3004) = 13.8802
T1 – T2 (500 – 300)
q = (hc + hr) A (T1 – T2) = (20 + 13.8802)(π x0.5 x 1)(500 – 300)
= 10,643.7787 W
 RADIATION, CONDUCTION, CONVECTION

A long cylindrical electrically heated rod, 2 cm in diameter, is

installed in a vacuum furnace. The surface of the heating rod
has an emissivity of 0.9 and is maintained at 1000K, while the
interior walls of the furnace are black and are at 800 K.
calculate the net rate at which heat is lost from the rod per unit
length and the radiation heat transfer coefficient.

q = Aεσ(T14 – T24) = π(0.02 x 1)(0.9)(5.67 x 10-8)(10004 – 8004)

= 1893 W

hrad’n = εσ(T14– T24) = 0.90(5.67x10-8)(10004 – 8004) = 151 W/m2.K

T1 – T2 (1000 – 800)
 Radiant Transfer between Surfaces
If two surfaces are arranged so that radiant energy
can be exchanged, a net flow of energy will occur
from the hotter surface to the colder surface. The
size, shape and orientation of the two radiating
surfaces or a system of surfaces are factors in
determining the heat transfer rate between them.

View Factor, F12= fraction of radiation leaving

the surface 1 in all directions which is intercepted
by surface 2.
Surface and View Factor Resistance
Radiant Transfer between Black Bodies

View Factor: Fij = fraction of radiation from

surface i intercepted by surface j.

1 2

F
j
ij 1 F11  F12 ...F1 j ...F1n  1

Ai Fij  A j F ji Thermal Equilibrium

 Surface and View Factor Resistance

ΣR = 1 1 + 1 – 1 and q12 = σ (T14 – T24)

A ε1 ε2 A 1/ε1 + 1/ε2 – 1
 Surface and View Factor Resistance
R Find:
Q 12  q12 A1
1 Q 12 2

R No net heat flux wall

1 1
1  e1 A1 F1 R X A2 F2 R 1e2
Analog
A1e 1 A2e 2
circuit
J1 JR J2
eb 1 eb 2
1
A1 F12
 Surface and View Factor Resistance
1 1
1  e1 A1 F1 R A2 F2 R 1e2
JR
A1e 1 A2e 2
1 J2
J1
eb 1 A1 F12 eb 2

1 1

1  e1 A1 F1 R A2 F2 R 1e2
A1e 1 A2e 2
1 J2
J1
eb 1 A1 F12 eb 2
 Surface and View Factor Resistance
1 1

1  e1 A1 F1 R A2 F2 R 1e2
A1e 1 A2e 2
1 J2
J1
eb 1 A1 F12 eb 2
1
A1 F12  A1 F12 
1 1
 1
A1 F1 R A2 F2 R
1
A1 F12 
1  e1 1 1 1e2

A1e 1 A1 F1 R A2 F2 R A2e 2

eb 1 J1 J2 eb 2
 Surface and View Factor Resistance
1  e1 1 1e2
A1e 1 A1 F12 A2e 2

eb 1 J1 J2 eb 2
1 1
A1F 12  A1 F12  A1 F12 
1  e1 1 1e2 1

1
 
A1e 1 A1 F12 A2e 2 A1 F1 R A2 F2 R

1  e1 1 1e2
 
A1e 1 A1 F12 A2e 2

eb 1 eb 2
 Surface and View Factor Resistance
1
A1F 12

eb 1 eb 2
Conduc tan ce  A1F 12
1 1
A1F 12  A1 F12  A1 F12 
1  e1 1 1e2 1 1
  
A1e 1 A1 F12 A2e 2 A1 F1 R A2 F2 R

Q 12  A1F 12 eb1  eb 2 
 
Q12  A1F12  T1  T2
4 4

 Surface and View Factor Resistance
Radiation heat transfer between two infinite parallel plates
F12  F21  1 A1  A2
1  e1 1 1e2
A1e 1 A1 F12 A2e 2
eb 1 eb 2
2
J1 J2
1
q12 A1 
eb1  eb 2 
1  e1 1 1 1e2
q12, net  
A1e 1 A1 F12 A2e 2

q12 
eb1  eb 2 
1 1
 1
e1 e2
 Surface and View Factor Resistance
Radiation heat transfer between small objects and infinite surrounding
A1
S F1 S  1  S  e S  1 0
AS
1  e1 1 1eS
A1e 1 A1 F1 S AS e S
1
q1 S , net eb 1 e bS
J1 JS

q1 S A1 
eb1  ebS 
1  e1 1 1 1  0e 2
 
A1e 1 A1 F1 S A2e S
q1S  Ae1 T  T 1
4
S
4
 q1S  Ae 1 eb1  ebS 
 Radiant Transfer between Black Bodies
For two black planes radiating to each other, the
net radiation is expressed as
q12 = Ƒ12A1σ(T14 – T2 4)
Where F12 is the view factor of surface 1 to surface
2, also
q21 = Ƒ21A2σ(T14 – T24)
For view factor cannot exceed unity. Such that
A1F12 = A2F21
and is independent of temperature
 Radiant Transfer between Black Bodies
In the case of infinite parallel planes, F12=F21=1.0,
the geometric factor is omitted.
q12 = A1σ(T14-T24)
When surfaces are connected by nonconducting
but reradiating walls, the reradiating view factor
is Ƒ12, is used instead of Ƒ12 and is treated
similarly.
 Radiant Transfer between Gray Bodies
For two gray planes radiating to each other, the net
radiation is expressed as
q12 = Ƒ12A1σ(T14-T24)

Where F12 is the new view factor and defined as

Ƒ12 = 1
1 + A1 1 – 1 + 1 -1
F12 A2 ε2 ε1
 Radiant Transfer between Gray Bodies
For one gray plane enclosing another which does
not see itself, the net radiation is expressed as
q12 = Ƒ12A1σ(T14-T24)

Where F12 is the new view factor and defined as

Ƒ12 = 1
1 1 + A1 1 – 1 + 1 -1
F12 A2 ε2 ε1
 Surface and View Factor Resistance
Two parallel gray planes which are very large have
emissivities of ε1 = 0.8 and ε2 = 0.7 and surface 1 is at 866.5 K
and surface 2 at 588.8 K.
a) What is the net radiation from 1 to 2?
b) If the surfaces are both black, what is the net radiation?

q12 
eb1  eb 2  a) q12 = σ (T14 – T24)
1/ε1 + 1/ε2 – 1
1 1
 1
e1 e2 q12 = 5.67 x 10-8 (866.54 – 588.84)
1/0.8+ 1/0.7 – 1
= 14982.32499 W/m2
b) q12 = σ (T14 – T24) = 5.67 x 10-8 (866.54 – 588.84)
= 25148.90266 W/m2
 Surface and View Factor Resistance
An oxidized steel tube (ε = 0.6, OD = 0.0762 m) passes
through a silica brick furnace (ε = 0.8, Di = 0.152 m x 0.152 m
x 0.152 m x 0.152 m). The inside wall furnace temperature is
982.2OC, and the outside of the tube is 537.8OC. What is the
rate of heat transfer?
qnet = σ A1 (T14 – T24) A1 = π(0.0762)(0.152)
1 + A1 1 – 1 + 1 – 1 = 0.0365 m2
F12 A2 ε2 ε1
F12 = 1 (1 sees 2 only)
A2 = [(0.152 + 0.152 + 0.152 + 0.152)2 – 2π/4 (0.0762)2] = 0.3605 m2

qnet = 5.67 x 10-8 (0.0365) (1255.354 – 810.954) = 2508.6707 W

1 + 0.0365 1 –1 + 1 –1
0.36054 0.8 0.6
 View Factor : Reradiating Walls
Two blackbody rectangles, 0.6 m by 1.2 m, are parallel and
directly opposed. The bottom rectangle is at T1 = 500K and the
top rectangle is at T2 = 900K. The two rectangles are 1.2 m
apart. Determine
a) The rate of radiant heat transfer b/n two surfaces
b) The rate at which the bottom rectangle is losing energy if
the surrounding are considered a blackbody at 0K.
c) The rate at which the bottom rectangle is losing energy if
the surrounding are considered a blackbody at 300K.
Using figure 5-13 (HB), ratio = 0.6/1.2 = 0.5 curve 3 F12 = 0.12
a) q12 = A1F12σ(T14 – T24)
= (0.6 x 1.2 ) (0.12) (5.67 x 10-8)(5004 – 9004)
= -2907.98 W
 View Factor : Reradiating Walls

b) q12 = A1σ(T14 – εT24)

= (0.6 x 1.2 )(5.67 x 10-8)[(500)4 – 0.12(900)4]
= - 662.6552 W

F space = 1 – 0 – 0.12 = 0.88

c) q12 = A1σ(T14 – εT24 – ε2T34)

= (0.6 x 1.2 )(5.67 x 10-8)[(500)4 – 0.12(900)4 – 0.88(300)4]
= - 953.6486 W
 RADIATION SHIELDING
An important application is the use of shielding to
reduce the rate of heat transfer by radiant
exchange.
q13 = q31 = Ƒ12A σ (T14 – T3 4)
Where F12 is the new view factor and defined as
Ƒ12 = 1
1 + 1 –1
ε1 ε3
 RADIATION SHIELDING
If a thin radiation shield, body 2, is placed between
two walls, the heat transfer rate per unit area is
q12 = q23
A A
q12 = σ (T14 – T24) = q12 = σ (T24 – T34)
A 1/ε1 + 1/ε2 – 1 A 1/ε2 + 1/ε3 – 1
ε1 = ε3; T24 = 1 (T14 + T34)
2
q = 1 σ (T14 – T34) = 1 (q1-3)o = 1 (q1-3)o
A 2 2/ε – 1 2 A n+1 A
 RADIATION SHIELDING
If a thin radiation shield, body 2, is placed between
two walls, the heat transfer rate per unit area is
q12 = q23
A A
q12 = σ (T14 – T24) = q12 = σ (T24 – T34)
A 1/ε1 + 1/ε2 – 1 A 1/ε2 + 1/ε3 – 1

q12 = (T14 – T24) = q12 = (T24 – T34)

A x A y
T3 = T14 + (x/y)T24 ¼
(1 + (x/y)
 RADIATION SHIELDING
Two large parallel plates are at 800 K and 600K have
emissivities of 0.5 and 0.8; respectively. A radiation shield
having emissivity of 0.1 is placed b/n the plate. Calculate the
heat transfer rate per m2 with and without the shield. Also,
calculate the temperature of the shield.

q12 = σ (T14 – T24) = q12 = σ (T24 – T34)

A 1/ε1 + 1/ε2 – 1 A 1/ε2 + 1/ε3 – 1

q12 = (T14 – T24) = q12 = (T24 – T34)

A x A y
T3 = T14 + (x/y)T24 ¼
(1 + (x/y)
 RADIATION SHIELDING

a) q13 = 5.67x10-8 (8004 – 6004) = 7056 W/m2

A 1/0.5 + 1/0.8 – 1
When rad’n shield is placed b/n two plates;
x = 1/ε1 + 1/ε3 – 1 = 1/0.5 + 1/0.1 – 1 = 11
y = 1/ε3 + 1/ε2 – 1 = 1/0.1 + 1/0.8 – 1 = 10.25

T3 = T14 + (x/y)T24 ¼ = 8004 + (11/10.25)(600)4 ¼ = 717.25

(1 + (x/y) 1 + (11/10.25)

b) qshiled = 5.67x10-8 (8004 – 717.254) = 747.1059 W/m2

A 11
 RADIATION SHIELDING
Two parallel plates have emissivity of 0.8 and 0.5. A
radiation shield that has the same emissivity on both sides
is placed between them. Calculate the emissivity of the
shield in order to reduce the radiation losses from the
system to one-tenth of that without the shield.
 RADIATION SHIELDING
Two large parallel plates at temperatures 1000K and 600K
have emissivity of 0.5 and 0.8, respectively. A radiation
shield has emissivity 0.1 on one side and 0.05 on the other
side is placed between plates. Calculate the heat transfer
rate by radiation per square meter with and without a
radiation shield.
 EXERCISE PROBLEMS
A drying unit moves the material to be dried through the
system by a conveyor belt. The width of material on the
belt is large enough for the case to give semi-infinite
conditions. Drying is accomplished by a row of
electrically heated cylinders (2cm in diameter and 8 cm
apart on a center to center basis) placed 16 cm from the
belt. The cylinders whose emissivity is 0.9 are at 1700 K.
the material (ε = 0.6) is at a temperature of 370 K. find
the radiant heat transferred.
 EXERCISE PROBLEMS

Two black body rectangles, 1.8 m by 3.6 m are parallel

and directly opposed and are 3.6 m apart. If surface 1 is at
T1 = 95OC and surface 2 is at T2 = 315OC, determine
a) the net rate of heat transfer
b) the net energy loss rate from the 95OC surface if the
surrounding other than surface 2 behave as black body
at 295 K.