Chapter 1

Introduction to Machine Design

Dr. Shahid Mehmood
 WHAT IS A MACHINE
• A device for transforming or transferring
energy
• An apparatus consisting of interrelated
units (machine elements)
• A device that modifies force and motion
• A machine receives energy in some
available form and uses it to do some
particular kind of work

• A petrol engine is a machine, which may

use the heat energy derived from the
combustion of the fuel to propel a vehicle
along the road
• A lathe is a machine which receives
mechanical energy from the line shaft
through the belt or gears and uses that
energy to remove metal from a bar or
other piece of work
• LINK OR ELEMENT : Each part of a
machine which has motion relative to
some other part
• STRUCTURES : Made up of series of
members of regular shape that have a
particular function for load carrying
 What is Design
• The word design is from Latin word
designare meaning “ to do or mark out.”
ENGINEERING DESIGN
• The process in which scientific principles
and the tools of engineering, mathematics,
computers, and graphics are used to
produce a plan which, when carried out,
will satisfy a human need
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DESIGN
• Design of things and systems of
mechanical nature, machines, products,
structures, devices, and instruments

• For the most part, mechanical design

utilizes mathematics, the materials
sciences, and the engineering mechanics
sciences
• The ultimate goal in machine design is to

 size and shape the parts

 choose appropriate material and
 choose manufacturing process

So that resulting machine can be expected

to perform its intended function without
failure
Design
• A design must be:
– Functional- fill a need or customer expectation
– Safe- not hazardous to users or bystanders
– Reliable- conditional probability that product will
perform its intended function without failure to a
certain age.
– Competitive- contender in the market
– Usable- accommodates human size and strength
– Manufacturable- minimal number of parts and suitable
for production
– Marketable- product can be sold and serviced
 Design Considerations
1. Strength 14. Noise
2. Stiffness 15. Styling
3. Wear 16. Shape
4. Corrosion 17. Size
5. Safety 18. Control
6. Reliability 19. Thermal Properties
7. Friction 20. Surface
8. Usability 21. Lubrication
9. Utility 22. Marketability
10. Cost 23. Maintenance
11. Processing 24. Volume
12. Weight 25. Liability
13. Life 26. Recovery
 Organizations
• Aluminum Association (AA)
• American Gear Manufacturers
Association (AGMA)
• American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC)
• American Iron and Steel
Institute (AISI)
• American National Standards
Institute (ANSI)
• American Society for Metals
(ASM)
• American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
• American Society of Testing
Materials (ASTM)
• American Welding Society (AWS)
• American Bearing
Manufacturers Association
(ABMA)
• British Standards Institute
(BSI)
• Industrial Fasteners Institute
(IFI)
• International Standards
Organization (ISO)
• National Institute for Standards
and Technology (NIST)
• Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE)
 Machine Design
• Creation of machinery that works safely,
reliably and well
• Is the creation of new and better machines
and improving the existing one.
• A new machine is one which is more
economical in the overall cost of
production and operation.
 Classification of Machine Design
• Adaptive design
– Adaptation of existing design
– No special knowledge and skill required
– Needs ordinary technical training
– Minor alteration and modification in the
existing design of product
 Classification of Machine Design
• Development design
– Works on existing design into new idea using
different material and method of
manufacturing
– Needs considerable scientific training and
design ability
– Final product may differ quite markedly
 Classification of Machine Design
• New design
– Needs
• lot of research
• Technical ability
• Creative thinking
 Classification of Machine Design
• Classification due to methods
– Rational design: depends upon mathematical formulae
– Empirical design: depends upon empirical formulae
– Industrial design:
– Optimum design
– System design: complex mechanical system like a motor car
– Element design
– Computer aided design
 General Considerations in
Machine Design
1. Type of load and stresses caused by
the load.
2. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the
machine.
3. Selection of materials.
4. Form and size of the parts.
5. Frictional resistance and lubrication.
6. Convenient and economical features.
6. Convenient and economical features.
7. Use of standard parts.
8. Safety of operation.
9. Workshop facilities.
10. Number of machines to be
manufactured.
11. Cost of construction
12. Assembling.
 General procedure in Machine
Design
Recognition of need
Synthesis ( Mechanisms)
Analysis of forces
Material selection
Design of elements( size and stresses)
Modification
Detailed drawing
production
Steps to Design
 Properties of Materials:
1. Chemical – related to structure of
material, atomic bonds, etc.
2. Physical – response of a material due to
interaction with various forms of energy
(i.e. magnetic, thermal, etc).
3. Mechanical – response of a material due
to an applied force. Main focus for
Machine Design.
Important Mechanical Properties:
 Tension Test
• Most important and common material test for generating mechanical properties.
• Can be load vs displacement or load versus strain. Always convert load to stress.

Example: stress-strain curves:

 Stress-Strain Curve for Steel
Yield Point, Sy

Sy
Tensile Strength, Su
Elastic Limit
Proportional Limit
Stress, 

Modulus of Elasticity


E


Strain, 
Stress Strain Curve for Aluminum
Proportional Limit
Elastic Limit

Sy
Tensile Strength, Su
Yield Strength, Sy
Stress, 

Parallel Lines

Offset strain, usually 0.2%

Strain, 
 Ductility
• The degree to which a material will deform
before ultimate fracture.
– Ductile materials indicate impending failure.
(%E ≥ 5%)
– Brittle materials don’t (%E < 5%)
– For machine members subject to repeated
loads or shock or impact, use %E ≥ 12%

Lf  Lo
%Elongation  x 100 %
Lo
Ductile materials - extensive plastic deformation and
energy absorption (toughness) before fracture

Brittle materials - little plastic deformation and low energy

absorption before failure
Other properties determined from stress strain curve:
 Shear Strength Estimates

Sy
S ys  Yield strength in
2 shear

S us  .75 S y Ultimate strength

in shear
 Poisson’s Ratio

h f  ho
LAT 
ho
L f  Lo
 AX 
Lo

RANGES

 TRANSVERSE 0.25 – 0.27 for Cast Iron

  0.27 – 0.30 for Steel
 LONGITUDINAL 0.30 – 0.33 for Aluminum and Titanium
 Modulus of Rigidity in Shear
• Measure of resistance to shear
deformation.

 E
G , G
 2(1  )
• Valid within the ELASTIC range of the
material
 Summary: Key Material Properties:

Percent Elongation:
Yield Strength (psi) = onset of permanent deformation: L f  Lo
  100 %
Py Lo
 y  Sy  yield strength  or use .2% offset
A Lo = original gauge length
Lf = final gauge length
Tensile Strength (psi) = max stress or peak stress sustainable:
•>5% = ductile
Pu
 u  Su  U .T .S  •<5% = brittle
A
Percent Reduction of Area :
Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus (psi) – slope of linear region: Ao  A f
  100 %
 2  1  Ao
E 
 2  1 
Ao = original cross-sectional area
σ2-σ1 = difference in tensile stress between points 1 and 2 Af = final cross-sectional area
ε2-ε1 = difference in tensile strain between points 1 and 2
Modulus of Resilience (psi) = area under stress
  
G  2 1   Shear Modulus strain curve up to elastic limit or yield strength
 2  1 
1  el2
Poison's Ratio (unit less) = ratio of transverse to longitudinal strain: U R   el  el 
2 2E
 transverse

 longitudinal Modulus of Toughness (psi) = total area under stress
strain curve up from 0 to fracture. Related to impact
Strength:
Yield Strength in shear:

Sy UT  Area under    curve

 y  Sys  yield strength in shear 
2
Example: find yield
strength, ultimate strength
and modulus of elasticity:
Example: find yield strength and ultimate
for material that does not exhibit knee
behavior
Example –
DATA
generated
on MTS
machine:
EX:
Su = ultimate
Strength =
47,820 psi Stress-Strain Tensile Curve for Specimen 5 Speed of Loading = 0.1 in/min
Temperature = 23 C
RJM 9/5/05
50000.0

45000.0

40000.0
Sy = Yield
Strength =
44,200 psi
35000.0

30000.0
E = Young’s Modulus = (34,640 –
Stress (psi)

10,597)/(.0036 - .0011) = 9.6 E6

25000.0

20000.0

15000.0

10000.0
% Elongation = 11.5%
.002 = .2%
5000.0 offset

0.0
0.0000 0.0200 0.0400 0.0600 0.0800 0.1000 0.1200
Strain (in/in)
EX:

Stress-Strain Tensile Curve for Specimen 5 Speed of Loading = 0.1 in/min

Temperature = 23 C
RJM 9/5/05
50000.0

45000.0

40000.0

35000.0

30000.0 Modulus of Resilience =

Stress (psi)

area under stress-strain

25000.0
curve up to elastic limit
20000.0
1  el2 (44,000) 2
  el  el    96.8 psi
15000.0 2 2E 2(10,000,000)
10000.0

Elastic strain approx: .005 in/in

5000.0

0.0
0.0000 0.0200 0.0400 0.0600 0.0800 0.1000 0.1200
Strain (in/in)
 Stress-Strain Tensile Curve for Specimen 5 Speed of Loading = 0.1 in/min
Temperature = 23 C
RJM 9/5/05
50000.0

45000.0

40000.0

35000.0

30000.0 Modulus of Toughness =

Stress (psi)

UT = area under stress-

25000.0
strain curve from 0 to
20000.0
fracture strain.

15000.0

10000.0

Approx = 96.8 psi + (46,000)(.115 - .0043) = 5,190 psi

5000.0

0.0
0.0000 0.0200 0.0400 0.0600 0.0800 0.1000 0.1200
Strain (in/in)
 Hardness
• Resistance of a material to be indented by
an indenter.
– BRINELL 3000 kg load
10 mm ball
 of hole = BHN
– ROCKWELL 100 kg load (B Scale)
1/16” Ball (B Scale)
B-Scale for soft materials
C-Scale for harder metals (Heat treated)
(Use 150 kg load with diamond cone indenter)
Hardness calculated directly by machine (depth of indentation)
 Toughness
• Toughness is the ability of a
material to absorb energy
before failure.
• Parts subjected to impact or
shock loads need to be tough.
• Testing: Charpy and Izod
tests
• Impact energy determined
from the testing is used to
compare materials
 Fatigue
• Failure mode of parts experiencing
thousands or millions of repeated loads.
• Endurance Strength - a materials
resistance to fatigue. Determined by
testing.
 Creep
• Progressive elongation of a part over time.
• Metals – usually requires a large load
– usually requires high temperature
(> .3Tm)
• Plastic – creep occurs at low temperatures
 Mechanical Property Summary
Common or
Property Interpretation
Related Measure
Strength Ability to resist breaking Yield stress

Stiffness Ability to resist deformation Modulus of elasticity

Permanent deformation
Ductility before breaking
%Elongation

Energy or work
Ability to withstand impact or
Toughness resist breaking
necessary to fracture
material
Ability to resist Scores on hardness
Hardness abrasion/scratching tests
Gradual, continuing
Creep deformation under an Creep strength
applied constant stress
 Material Selection
• “The materials selected for a design often will
determine the fabrication processes that can be
used to manufacture the product, its
performance characteristics, and its recyclability
and environmental impact. As a result,
engineers should acquire a robust
understanding of material characteristics and the
criteria that one should use in making material
selections.”
- Voland, Engineering by Design, Addison-Wesley, 1999, pg. 400
 Material Categories
• Metals – iron, steel, aluminum, copper, magnesium,
nickel, titanium, zinc
• Polymers – thermoplastics & thermosets
• Ceramics
• Composites – Carbon fiber, Kevlar & fiberglass,
wood and reinforced concrete
 Steel
• Widely used for machine elements
– High strength
– High stiffness
– Durable
– Relative ease of fabrication
• Alloy of Iron, Carbon, Manganese & 1 or
more other significant elements.
(Sulfur, Phosphorus, Silicon, Nickel, Chromium,
Molydbenum and Vanadium)
 Carbon
• Carbon has huge effect on strength,
hardness and ductility of steel.

Carbon Content 
Strength & Hardness 
Ductility ↓
All these curves are
steels.
What do they have in
common?
What is different?
 Steel Designation Systems
• AISI – American Iron & Steel Institute
• SAE – Society of Automobile Engineers
• ASTM – American Society for Testing
Materials
 General Designation
• General Form AISI:
AISI XXXX
Carbon Content in
Hundredths of a percent
Specific alloy in the
group

Alloy group; indicates

major alloying elements

AISI 1020 AISI 4340

Examples:

2350
2550
4140
1060
Plain Carbon Steel
1. Low Carbon (less than 0.3% carbon)
• Low strength, good formability
• If wear is a potential problem, can be carburized
(diffusion hardening)
• Most stampings made from these steels
• AISI 1008, 1010, 1015, 1018, 1020, 1022, 1025

2. Med Carbon (0.3% to 0.6%)

• Have moderate to high strength with fairly good ductility
• Can be used in most machine elements
• AISI 1030, 1040, 1050, 1060*

3. High Carbon (0.6% to 0.95%)

• Have high strength, lower elongation
• Can be quench hardened
• Used in applications where surface subject to abrasion –
tools, knives, chisels, ag implements.
• AISI 1080, 1095
 Steel Conditions
• Steel properties vary depending on the
manufacturing process
• Steel is often rolled or drawn through a die
– Hot-rolled – rolled at elevated temperature
– Cold-rolled – improved strength & surface
finish
– Cold-drawn – highest strength with good
surface finish
 Heat Treating
• is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to
alter their physical and mechanical properties
without changing the product shape.
• Process for modifying the properties of steel by
heating
• Processes used most for machine steels:
– Annealing
– Normalizing
– Through-hardening (quench & temper)
– Case hardening
All these curves are
steels.
What do they have in
common?
What is different?
 Annealing

• Full-Annealing: creates
uniform composition of the
material.
– Soft, low-strength material
– No significant internal stress

RT = Room Temperature
LC = Lower Critical Temperature
UC = Upper Critical Temperature
 Stress Relief Annealing
• Stress Relief Annealing
– Done after welding,
machining or cold forming to
relieve residual stresses
minimizing distortions

RT = Room Temperature
LC = Lower Critical Temperature
UC = Upper Critical Temperature
 Normalizing
• Similar to annealing but
at a higher temperature
(about 1600°F)
• Higher strength
• Machinability and
toughness are improved
over as-rolled state. RT = Room Temperature
LC = Lower Critical Temperature
Austenite: A nonmagnetic solid solution UC = Upper Critical Temperature
of ferric carbide or carbon in iron, used in
making corrosion-resistant steel
 Through-hardening
• Heated quickly forming
austenite then quickly
cooling in a quenching
medium.
• Martensite – hard form of
steel is formed
• Quenching mediums:
water, brine and special
mineral oils.
RT = Room Temperature
• Quenched steel that isn’t LC = Lower Critical Temperature
tempered is brittle UC = Upper Critical Temperature
 Tempering
• Reheat steel to 400°F – 1300°F
immediately after quenching and allowing
it to cool slowly.
• As tempering temperature increases,
ultimate and yield strengths decrease and
ductility increases
• Machine parts should be tempered at 700
°F minimum after quenching. Quenching
leaves the material brittle.
 Case Hardening
• Surface of a part is hardened but core
remains soft & ductile
• Usually .010 to .040 thick
• Methods:
– Flame hardening and induction hardening
– Carburizing, nitriding, cyaniding, and carbo-
nitriding
Flame Hardening:
Induction Hardening
 Powdered Metals
• Metal powders are placed into a die and
compacted under high pressure.
• Sintering at high temperatures fuses the
powder into a uniform mass.
• Usually brittle – not good for impact
• Sintered bearings – porous and can be
saturated with lubricant
 Aluminum
• Lightweight material, good corrosion
resistance, relative ease of forming &
machining.
• Good appearance.
• Generally tempered
– O = annealed
– H = strain-hardened Strain-hardening:
– T = heat treated controlled cold working
of the alloy – increases
hardness and strength,
reduces ductility.
 Plastics
• Thermoplastic – can be repeatedly formed by
heating or molding – properties not changed.
CAN BE RECYLCED!
– Nylon
– ABS
– Polycarbonate
– Acrylic
– Commodity plastics: Polypropylene (P), Polyethylene (PE), Polyvinyl
Chloride (PVC), Polystyrene (PS)

• Thermoset – undergoes a chemical change

during forming. It can’t be reshaped. CAN NOT
BE RECYCLED!
– Phenolic
– Polyester
– Epoxy
 Ceramics
• Formed by applying high temperatures to
inorganic, nonmetallic, and generally
inexpensive material, especially clay.
• Strong, nonconductive and weather
resistant.
• Brittle
 Composites
• Two or more materials acting together to
provide material properties that can be
tailored to specific conditions.
• Often glass or carbon fibers bonded
together with a matrix material – epoxy,
polyester, others.
 Material Selection
• A good material is one that works in the
given application cheaply.

• If wt & size not important  use cheap matl

• Size no problem, wt is  use hollow matl
• Wt & size important  use $$$ material
 Assignment 19-02-2010
• Write a summary of ch1&2
• Self study all articles that are not being
discussed
• Note minimum 100 important points by own
effort from book “ Machine Design” by Norton
• Last date to Submit this hand written report is
20-02-2017
• You could be asked to elaborate one or more
points from your assignment in the class
• Assignment will be marked with “on the spot”
judgment during the class